Assessment of the potential of cactus pear (Opuntia ficus indica) as livestock feed in Northern Ethiopia

Gebremeskel Gebretsadik, Getachew Animut and Firew Tegegne*

School of Animal and Range Sciences, Haramaya University, P.O. Box 65, Dire Dawa, Ethiopia
gere3582@yahoo.com
* Department of Animal Production and Technology, Bahir Dar University, P.O. Box 2172, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia

Abstract

Survey was conducted in two zones, eastern zone and southern zone of Tigray Region, northern Ethiopia to assess the productivity potential and utilization of cactus pear (Opuntia ficus indica) as source of livestock feed. Two districts from each zone and a total of 216 households in equal proportion were purposively selected. Structured questionnaire was prepared and households were interviewed individually. Data was supplemented by information obtained from key-informants. Secondary data were employed to assess the present and future prospect of the plant in the region. Four top cultivars, one from each district that ranked first on the basis of contribution and abundance were considered to estimate dry matter (DM) yield. Soil analysis for phosphorus (P) and nitrogen (N) contents was done to determine if the two minerals were sufficient for the plant.

The major functions of cactus pear reported were food, livestock feed, cash income, environmental protection, fence, fire wood, cochineal production and bee forage. Cladodes and fruit peel are consumed by animals. Majority of the respondents collect and feed middle aged cladodes than young and old aged ones. Cactus as feed was more utilized in eastern zone. Respondents believed that cactus feeding increase milk yield and body weight gain of animals. The major cactus pear feeding problems reported from all the study districts were diarrhea followed by bloating and physical injuries. About 80 cactus cultivars were identified in the two zones. The DM yield of the top four cultivars did not vary (P > 0.05) and ranged 12.9-13.7 tonnes/ha. The P content of the soil was sufficient and it was similar (P > 0.05) but the N content was medium and it was greater (P < 0.05) in the southern than the eastern zone. In conclusion, cactus pear is a multipurpose plant with great potential as source of livestock feed yielding good DM in the study area, and thus efforts to improve the productivity of the plant need to be intensified.  

Key words: cultivars, dry matter yield, survey

Introduction

The increasing human population and higher demand for food in Ethiopia is altering the land use system which favours crop production at the expense of natural gazing lands. Consequently livestock are forced to depend mainly on crop residues and crop aftermath which often provide inadequate energy, protein, minerals and vitamins to support optimum animal production (Van Soest 1994; McDonald et al 2002; Kassahun 2008). The problem is even aggravated in arid and semi-arid areas where erratic and unreliable rainfall results to seasonal fluctuations in feed supply. Under such conditions, there is a need to look for locally available alternative feed resources to make animals survive critical periods of shortfall in feed supply (Firew 2007). Thus, multi-purpose plants like cactus pear (Opuntia ficus indica) which can adapt to harsh environments and produce feed and food with minimum inputs can be used to fill gaps in the feeding of livestock.

Cactus pear was introduced to Ethiopia between 1848 and 1920 (Neumann 1997; Habtu 2005). The plant is widely distributed in the arid and semi arid regions of the country; especially in eastern and southern zones of Tigray Region of Ethiopia. Over the last few decades interest in cactus pear as food and feed has increased due to its drought resistance, high biomass yield, high palatability and tolerance to salinity (Barbera 1995; Ben Salem et al 1996). Stintzing and Carle (2005) described cactus pear as a miracle plant, dromedary of the vegetation world, and the bank of life as it can contribute to livelihoods of rural populations in dry areas. Therefore, cultivation of the plant may assume greater agricultural importance in dry areas since a larger part of the land is destined to become arid or semi-arid due to climate change (Snyman 2006).   

Although cactus pear is and will continue to be a potential food and fodder plant, its development is limited by the lack of adequate characterization and nutritional evaluation of the different cultivars of the plant. In Tigray region of Ethiopia there are 60 farmer identified cultivars (Firew 2007) and 34 cactus cultivars have been characterized by Tigray Agricultural Research Institute (Nefzaoui et al 2010). However, nutritional characterization and selection of better cultivars have not been done. Besides, the current distribution and utilization, differences in adaptability, palatability and the productivity potential among the known cultivars demands investigation. Therefore, the present study was conducted with the objectives of generating holistic information about the production and utilization of cactus pear cultivars and to estimate the productivity potential of the plant in Tigray, northern Ethiopia.  

Materials and Methods

Study areas 

The survey was conducted in February, 2011 in Tigray Regional State, Ethiopia. Two zones namely, southern zone and eastern zone were purposively selected. Southern zone has a bimodal rainfall distribution that ranges from 400 – 912 mm annually, with an average annual rainfall of 656 mm. The short and long rainy seasons fall in February to April and June to early September, respectively. The annual temperature ranges from 9 – 32 ^OC. Southern zone of Tigray Regional State is located between 12° 17’ – 12° 56’ N latitude and 39° 32’ – 39° 36’ E longitude and lies at an altitude range of 1000 – 3500 meters above sea level (masl) with an average altitude of 2250 masl (SZARDO 2010). Eastern zone is located between 13° 41’ – 13° 46’ N latitude and 39° 21’ – 39° 34’ E longitude and lies at an altitude range of 1931 – 2711 masl. The zone has a monomodal rainfall (June to early September) that ranges from 140 – 671 mm annually. Similarly, the annual temperature ranges between 10 – 30 ^OC (EZARDO 2010). 

Data collection and statistical analysis 

From each zone two districts, namely, Raya- azebo and Endamohoni from southern and Erob and Ganta-afeshum from eastern zones were selected purposively based on their potential in cactus pear production and utilization. A total of 12 rural “Peasant Associations (PAs)” (the smallest administrative unit in Ethiopia), and 216 households in equal proportion from the four districts were selected for data collection. Semi-structured questionnaire was prepared and pretested. Based on the feedback of semi-structured questionnaire, well structured questionnaire were prepared and respondents were interviewed individually. The questionnaire included identification of the cactus cultivars available in the locality, management practices, distribution, their current uses, and the difficulties encountered in the cultivation and utilization of cactus cultivars related to animal feed and ways of treatment before feeding to animals. Respondents were also asked to rate the different cultivars based on abundance and preference by livestock.  

Data collected using questionnaire was supplemented by information obtained from key-informants and secondary data derived from Bureau of Agriculture and Rural Development Offices at each district. Discussions were held during the survey with key-informants consisting of elders, cactus pear project coordinators and PA development agents. During discussion, information was gathered on issues related to the importance of cactus pear as animal feed, its current distribution, the major constraints in the production and utilization of the plant, and the overall plan on cactus plantation and utilization program in the region.  

Four top selected cultivars of cactus pear, one from each district were selected for biomass yield determination. One top cultivar from each district was selected based on farmers rating of the different cultivars of cactus pear on the basis of contribution and abundance. When the same cultivar happens to be selected as top from more than one district, the cultivar was assigned as being selected for the district that it occurs in greater proportion. For the other district(s) the next cultivar was considered so as to make the total number of cultivars considered in this study for biomass determination four.  

For biomass determination of each selected cultivar, three villages from each district were selected based on the presence of the selected cultivar. Each village was stratified based on the density of the plant into three strata, i.e., densely, medium and sparsely populated areas with cactus pear to help in getting representative estimates of biomass. From each stratum a representative sample area (10 meter by 10 meter) was selected and plants in the area were counted and three plants that were assumed to be representative of the size of the available plants were harvested, dried at 65 ^OC for 48 hours in a forced draft oven for the estimation of average biomass per plant, whose values were translated into biomass per unit area by multiplying average biomass yield of the plant with the number of plants in the given area. 

Age of cladodes was decided after the preliminary survey by taking the indigenous knowledge of farmers of the area, such as cladode appearance, size and strength of spines and fruiting frequency of cladodes. 

Surface soil samples were collected from 0 – 20 cm depth using auger to evaluate soil fertility of the biomass estimated area. Soil samples from the different strata were collected following zigzag (W and M) shape. The collected samples were composited for each stratum. Soil samples were air-dried, crushed and ground to pass through 2 mm sieve size. Then all soil samples were analyzed at Mekelle University soil laboratory to determine the concentration of N and P which are limiting for DM and other nutrients accumulation of cactus pear (Nobel 1989; Dubeux et al 2006). 

The survey data were systematically coded and analyzed using descriptive statistics by employing Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS 2007). For data involving frequencies, descriptive statistics were employed and Pearson Chi-square was used to compare variables between the two zones. Quantitative variables were analyzed using analysis of variance procedure. The biomass data was analyzed with cultivar in the model assuming villages per district as experimental units. Least significant difference (LSD) was employed to separate means when significant effect was detected. 

Results and discussion

Household characteristics 

In the study areas, the mean age of the interviewed household (HH) heads was 47 years with a family size of 5 (Table 1). The family size in this study is comparable to the average family size of 4.9 of the region reported by CSA (2008) for rural areas. From the total interviewed HHs a quarter was illiterate, and there was no significant difference (P > 0.05) in literacy rate among the study districts. However, literacy rate figures were higher in southern zone as compared to eastern zone, which might be due to the presence of more primary schools in the former (CSA 2011).

Historical background of cactus pear 

According to legend, cactus pear locally known by the vernacular name “Beles” was introduced between 1848 and 1870 by Catholic Missionaries to eastern zone of Tigray.  An interview with key-informants in Erob identified a priest called “Abune-Yakob” who visited Erob and realized that the area was not suitable for cropping and other agricultural activities due to recurrent drought, erratic rainfall, rocky and mountainous topography. As a result the priest brought three spineless cladodes from Mexico, its country of origin (Griffith 2004) and planted one cladode in Alitena (Erob), the second cladode planted in Golea (Ganta-afeshum) and the third cladode planted in Lehe (Eritrea). Then after, the plant was distributed throughout the region and beyond.  

This agrees with Kibra (1992) and Neumann (1997) who reported that missionaries were the ones that introduced cactus to Northern Ethiopia around 1847/8. However, Habtu (2005) reported that Muslim pilgrimages to Mecca (Saudi Arabia) introduced cactus pear to the lowlands of the southern Tigray in 1920.  Even though, the popularity of the plant as food and feed is relatively low as compared to in Tigray, cactus pear is also found in eastern and southern parts of Ethiopia, which may indicate a possibility of separate route of introduction because these areas do not share border with Tigray, northern Ethiopia. Currently cactus pear is widely spread through the region and is believed to cover more than 379,338 hectares of land, i.e., 7.4% of the total land of the Tigray region (SAERT 1994; Nefzaoui et al 2010).

Current status and utilization of cactus pear  

Cactus pear was primarily regarded in Tigray as an emergency food/feed used by human/livestock as coping mechanism during drought periods. Consequently, the region’s potential resource is still underutilized. However, the increased vulnerability to drought and the ever increasing uncertainty of other crops in the region, made the importance of the plant to increase (Mengistu 2001; Firew 2007; Mulugeta 2007; Nefzaoui et al 2010). Furthermore, cactus pear plantation and utilization has received increased attention at regional level as multipurpose food security crop. Currently, Cactus Production and Processing Initiative (CPPI) team was established to aggressively and strategically develop the plant and its utilization. Besides, following the regional government request to Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), a Technical Cooperation Program (TCP) project was implemented to improve cactus cultivation and utilization in the region. Similarly, the Regional Bureau of Agriculture and Rural Development (RBOARD) tried to expand millions of planting material to the non cactus growing areas of the region since 2007 (Firew 2007; Nefzaoui et al 2010). The RBOARD in collaboration with FAO established one collection center in Agulae which is located around 30 km north of Mekelle where 42 cactus pear cultivars are collected.  

Across the study areas, cactus pear is utilized to serve a range of functions. Some of the functions reported were as human food, feed for livestock, cash income, environmental protection, fence, fire wood, cochineal production and honey bee forage (Table 2). There was no significant difference in the utilization of cactus pear among districts except for cochineal production which is practiced only in Raya-azebo district of the southern zone. This was due to the introduction of the insect to the district. The insect was introduced from South Africa supported by the FAO-TCP project hosted by Mekelle University in 2003 and released to the study district in 2004 (Tesfay et al 2006). 

According to 70% of the respondents, cactus pear is mainly used as feed, food and for sale. Cactus pear has widely been adapted to different parts of the Tigray region and is an integral part of the culture and economy of the area. Cactus pear is the only multipurpose plant which can tolerate drought and be available ever green throughout the year. The fruit serves as the only source of food for many farmers during the rainy season just before the harvesting of staple crops. The fruits are fleshy, tasty, juicy and can be consumed at home or sold in the market. The demand for the fruit has increased in the local and national market. The recognition and demand of cactus pear for food and feed initiated many farmers and youngsters to intensify the production of the plant, creating an important economic role in the study area. Furthermore, many school children spent their time to collect and sale the fruits to help cover their school fees.  

Cactus pear cladodes are important as source of livestock feed in the study districts. Currently, cladodes were also used for sale to propagate the plant, particularly in the eastern zone, as the plant is owned privately unlike to southern zone of Tigray, which is owned communally (Firew 2007).  

About 10% of the respondents noted that cactus pear especially the spiny variety serves as live fence to prevent encroachment of predators and livestock to crop lands. Similarly Mengistu (2001) and Firew (2007) reported that the spiny Opuntia species are used to delimit terrains, family farms and livestock enclosures and pathways to protect crop lands and pasture from grazing and trampling by animals. Farmers in the study areas indicated that due to land fragmentation most of the time propagation and cultivation of the plant is practiced on hilly, sloppy and stony areas, which is not suitable for other crops; aimed at maximizing the plant use on marginal lands and protect soil erosion. Cactus pear has been recognized as species suitable for soil erosion control, land reclamation and combating desertification (Mengistu 2001; Nefzaoui and Ben Salem 2001; Firew 2007; Nefzaoui and El Mourid 2009). Furthermore, aged and dried stems, roots and cladodes were also utilized as fire wood across the study districts. 

Management practices applied to cactus pear 

Across the study districts the management applied to cactus pear such as fertilizer application, watering and weeding appeared to be non-existent. However, fencing to vulnerable cladodes was practiced by 39.4% of the respondents, the majority (62.3%) being from the eastern zone of Tigray. The justification for applying little input for cactus cultivation according to the respondents is that, they can sell, feed their animals and family without any input, and inputs like fertilizers is used in priority for cereal crop cultivation. Even though some market linkages were begun, they are not yet developed and intensified. So farmers in the study areas said that they have no interest to spend extra resources for cactus production. Furthermore, fruits are seasonal and cover only about three months of the year which limits the economic output of the plant.  

Botanical fractions of cactus pear consumed by livestock 

In the current study, all respondents across the districts reported cladodes and fruit peel (skin) are the botanical parts of the plant consumed by animals. The spineless and spiny cladodes are grazed by livestock and wild life in the study districts. Most farmers plant mainly the spineless cactus on their backyard and farmstead to be able to closely monitor access of livestock so as to prevent damage to the plant. The fruit peel was also reported as an excellent livestock feed in all the study areas. Farmers considered it as a supplemental feed and usually offered to productive animals such as draught oxen, pregnant and milking animals. The seasonality of the fruit peel was reported as a problem, because its availability depends on the fruit, which is only available during the rainy season. 

Preferred age of cactus cladodes for livestock feeding 

One of the most important factors that affect the nutritional quality of feeds is age of the plant (Waramit et al 2011). Respondents indicated that more preference is given for the medium age cladodes followed by old and young age cladodes for livestock feeding of (Table 3). Digestibility and crude protein content of cactus is generally negatively correlated with the age of the plant (Firew 2001). Consequently, many researchers (Retamal et al 1987; Nobel 1983; Firew 2007) noted the most preferred age of cactus pear cladodes for feeding to be at the young stage. However, majority of the respondents in the study districts did not like to harvest the plant for feeding at young age because of the multipurpose use of the plant on one hand and due to the fear that animals fed young cladodes may frequently suffer from bloating and diarrhea.

Harvesting and feeding cactus cladodes for livestock 

Respondents utilize both the spiny and spineless cactus as forage in the study districts. Even though the majority of the respondents in the study areas use cut-and-carry systems, the system was more (P < 0.05) employed in Erob and Ganta-afeshum districts (Table 4). This was because the plant is owned privately and people living in the two districts realized that cut-and-carry system reduces feed wastage and considerably improves feed utilization. Besides, the spiny cladodes are difficult to be accessed by livestock in situ as it can cause physical damages to the eyes, nostrils and alimentary canals of animals if grazed freely (Mengistu 2001; Firew 2007; Nefzaoui et al 2010). Farmers in the study areas tackled the problem of spines by burning and chopping the cladodes, which would help increase consumption and reduce wastage in a form of partially eaten and abandoned cladodes. De Kock (1980) noted that direct browsing of cactus pear may result to wastage reaching 50% of the fodder product and the plantation itself may be destroyed by over browsing within a short time of overstocking.

In all the study districts, cladodes were collected mainly in the morning than evening or any time of the day. According to the respondents, morning collection of the cladodes will help to facilitate the drying process through exposing the material to sun drying throughout the day, which is expected to reduce problems like diarrhea and bloating that are believed to happen by feeding the moisture rich cladodes. Wilting of cladodes was also reported to increase the DM intake of animals as compared to the fresh cladodes (Tikabo et al 2006). 

The amount and proportion of different feeds that are fed along with cactus cladodes varies among respondents across the study districts. Cactus cladodes were fed mixed with other feeds more (P < 0.05) in the southern zone than eastern zone. The result might reflect the presence of relatively better alternative feed sources in the southern as compared to the eastern zone districts.

Problems associated with the intensification and utilization of cactus pear as livestock feed 

The major cactus pear feeding problems reported from all the study areas were diarrhoea followed by bloating and physical injuries (Table 5). The most common traditional treatment and prevention methods used by farmers to minimize the problems of bloating and/or diarrhoea were similar across the study districts and included drenching with detergents, puncturing the rumen, limit the amount of cladodes offered to animals and use the same cactus pear cultivar during feeding so that animals can adapt it easily. Over feeding of cladodes, both spiny and spineless, to animals was reported to be the main cause for diarrhoea and bloating. Therefore, mixing cladodes with other feeds for feeding may decrease total intake of cladodes and hence reduce the formation of gases in the rumen and thereby bloating. Although there are recommended levels of cactus cladodes that animals should consume without any metabolic disturbance (Firew et al 2007), it is difficult to apply that due to free access of the animals to the plant.  

Majority (75%) of the respondents reported that animals fed spineless cactus was more vulnerable for diarrhoea and bloating as compared to those fed the spiny variety. The justification for this according to respondents is that during spine burning some of the moisture content of the spiny cladodes might be lost through evaporation. However, Abdi et al (2009) reported that, gas production from spineless and spiny cladodes was similar either in winter or summer. Eating cactus fruits and cladodes with spines and glochids was reported to result physical injuries and lodging in the gastro intestinal tract, which may lead to bacterial infections (Mengistu 2001; Firew 2007; Mulugeta 2007; Nefzaoui et al 2010). Physical injuries due to cactus consumption were significantly (P < 0.05) higher in the southern zone than the eastern zone, which might be due to the fact that livestock in the southern zone practice more free grazing as compared to districts in the eastern zone.  

In Tigray the immediate solution to bring food security especially in drought prone areas is working with cactus (Nefzaoui et al 2010). The plant can easily propagate by vegetative means. However, farmers in the study area revealed that land shortage followed by disease and lack of awareness were the major problems in the propagation and intensification of the plant. Land problem was significantly (P < 0.05) higher in eastern zone as compared to southern zone. The ever increasing human population is altering the land use pattern in the study districts, and the problem is more apparent in the eastern zone. Disease as an intensification problem is more common (P < 0.05) in the southern zone than the eastern zone. Respondents in the southern zone of Tigray believed that the introduction of cochineal insect as an introduction of disease to the cactus pear production. Although the intention of introducing the insect was to collect and export cochineal to benefit the farmers in the area, the insect was observed to spread and expand alarmingly to potential cactus fruit producing areas aided by wind and man, and is becoming a challenge for the production of cactus pear. The insect feeds heavily on the cladodes and decrease the feeding potential of the plant to animals and humans and finally cladodes were observed to dry and fall and becomes out of use, except for fire wood (Figure 1). Currently the insect is invading vast areas of the region and is out of control in the southern zone demanding strategic action to control the spread of the insect.

The processing problems of cactus cladodes were not significantly different (P > 0.05) across the study districts. However, lack of fire wood and labor were relatively more pronounced in the eastern zone. This might be due to the fact that the eastern zone districts practice cut-and-carry system and are highly dependent on cactus to feed their livestock. Time and inconveniences during processing were also other problems reported by respondents across the study districts. 

Cactus pear cultivars and their distribution 

The survey result in the two zones revealed 80 cactus cultivars including those identified by Tigray Agricultural Research Institute. The cultivars vary in fruit color, shape, taste, and cladode shape, thickness, moisture content and amount of spines. The majority (37.5%) of the cultivars were from Erob followed by Raya-azebo (27.5%), Endamokhoni (21.2%) and Ganta-afeshum (13.8%) districts. The most important cultivars ranked by the respondents on the basis of the weight of their contribution as feed and food and their area coverage in the study districts are listed in Table 6 and Table 7 for the eastern and southern zones, respectively. Accordingly seven top cultivars were selected from each district. Garao ranked first from Erob followed by Silhuna and Neitsi as second and third, respectively. Keyh beles followed by Lemats beles and Sanguni ranked one to three from Ganta-afeshum. Wadwada, Qile, and Limo from Raya azebo; and Wadwada, Limo and Megal from Endamohoni ranked first, second and third, respectively. 

Biomass yield estimates of cactus pear cultivars 

Cactus pear can produce a high DM biomass per hectare (ha) as compared to many other crops (Nobel et al 1992; De Kock 2001).  Based on the survey results, four top cultivars, one from each district that ranked first were considered to estimate their DM yield. Since the same cultivar Wadwada ranked first from the two districts of the southern zone, Limo was considered from Endamohoni to make the number of cultivars four, one from each district (Table 8). The average DM yield of the four cultivars did not vary significantly (P > 0.05). The P content of the soil was similar (P > 0.05) but the N content was greater (P < 0.05) in the southern than the eastern zone. The difference in soil N levels of the two zones was reflected in numerical differences of DM yield of the cultivars from the two zones. This is in line with the positive effect of N fertilization on the productivity of cactus pear noted before (Dubeux et al 2006). The DM yield of the cultivars estimated in this study (13 tonnes/ha) appeared to be relatively greater than 10 tonnes/ha reported by De Kock (2001) for un-irrigated arid areas. However it was lower than the 20 tonnes/ha reported by Santos et al (2000) in Pernambuco semi-arid region. 

Soil analysis for P and N contents was done to determine if the two minerals were sufficient for the plant. According to Landon (1984) and Havlin et al (1999), if the total N in the soil is between 0.15% and 0.25%, then the soil is classified as medium for N content. Similarly, soils having greater than 0.0015% of P are categorized as soils having high P content. Soil analysis results indicated, the districts to have a medium N level and contain sufficient amount of P. The greater N level in the southern than eastern zone observed in this study is consistent with that reported by Firew (2007) in the same area.

Across the study districts, DM yield was significantly (P < 0.05) higher in the densely populated cultivars followed by medium and sparsely populated cultivars (Table 9). Similarly Dubeux et al (2006) reported that increasing plant population to result in greater productivity of Opuntia ficus indica in north-east Brazil.

Feeding calendar of cactus pear  

In the study districts, feed shortage, particularly in dry season, is the primary problem for livestock production. This situation increased the utilization of cactus as animal feed, since it is drought resistant and evergreen plant providing year round green forage to ruminants. Respondents in all study areas said that feeding of cactus to ruminants is a long time tradition and the plant play role in providing forage to livestock during extended dry season. Similar results were also reported before (Mengistu 2001; Firew 2007; Mulugeta 2007; Nefzaoui et al 2010). All farmers in the study areas use cactus as forage for livestock for almost throughtout the year in the eastern zone and nine months of the year in southern zone of Tigray (Figure 2). The shorter feeding calendar in southern zone might be due to the availability of alternative feed sources as compared to eastern zone districts. Furthermore, cactus as feed was highly utilized in eastern zone, especially in Erob, due to the effect of recurrent drought and the mountainous topography of the area which is unfavorable for cultivation and plantation of improved forage. Besides, cactus pear was initially introduced in eastern zone (1848) that gave the advantage of adaptation to the plant as compared to districts in the southern zone.

Watering frequency of animals fed on cactus pear 

In dryer areas, water is a limiting resource and what is available is usually used for growing cereal crops. Across the study districts majority of the respondents (64.3%) noted that animals refuse drinking free water when cactus is fed regularly justifying the need for no watering under such conditions (Table 10). Other respondents noted that animals fed cactus are watered once every two to four days, and the practice seems similar across the four study districts. Thus, cactus pear can provide a good deal of water to satisfy part of the animal requirement since it is rich in moisture, and thus may play a significant role especially in arid and semiarid areas where water is limiting for livestock production. Firew et al (2007) reported that cactus pear supplemented sheep drastically reduced free water intake and he concluded cactus pear has a substantial contribution in satisfying the water requirement of sheep. Similarly, Mengistu (2001) noted animals refused to drink water throughout the experimental period when both straw and cactus were given on free choice basis.  Tikabo et al (2006) also reported that water intake of animals fed on tef straw and fresh cactus was lower as compared to sheep offered wilted cactus.          

Perception of farmers on animal response when fed cactus pear 

Most respondents in the study districts believe that feeding cactus will result in increased milk production and growth rate of livestock (Table 11) with the response being similar (P > 0.05) among districts. Conversely, about 18% of the respondents believe that cactus feeding results to no change in growth rate of animals. Generally, feeding cactus along with some supplemental feeds was reported to have positive effects on milk yield and body weight gain of animals (Fuentes 1991; Azócar and Rojo 1991; Mengistu 2001; Ben Salem et al 2004; Firew et al 2007; Nefzaoui et al 2010).

Conclusion

• Cactus pear is a multipurpose plant with great potential as source of livestock feed in the study districts and the Tigray region of Ethiopia at large. The plant’s multiple benefits, good dry matter yield, even on marginal lands, being ever green year round, tolerance to drought and presence of cultivars are indicatives of its potential. Therefore, efforts to improve the productivity and utilization of the plant need to be done. Future work must also focus on the development and processing methods of the plant to incorporate it as part of the ration of farm animals, and in developing feeding systems using cactus products as ingredients.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank the Ministry of Education for granting the research budget, and Haramaya University and Mekelle University for facilitating the budget use. Experts, extension workers and farmers who took part in the interview and group discussion are gratefully acknowledged.

References

Abdi S, Ben Salem H, Martín-García A I and Molina-Alcaide E 2009 Ruminal fermentation of spiny (Opuntia amyclae) and spineless (Opuntia ficus indica f. inermis) cactus cladodes and diets including cactus. Animal Feed Science and Technology, Volume 149, pp. 333–340 

Azócar P and Rojo H 1991 Uso de cladodios de tuna (Opuntia ficus-indica) como suplemento forrajero estival de cabras en lactancia en reemplazo de heno de alfalfa. Avances en Producción Animal, Volume 16, pp. 173-182 

Barbera G 1995 History, economic and agro-ecological importance. In: Barbera G, Inglese P and Pimienta-Barrios E (eds). Agro-ecology, cultivation and uses of cactus pear. FAO Plant Production and Protection Paper, Volume 132, pp. 1-11 

Ben Salem H, Nefzaoui A, Abdouli H and Orskov E R 1996 Effect of increasing level of spineless cactus (Opuntia ficus-indica var. inermis) on intake and digestion by sheep given straw based diets. Journal of Animal Sciences, Volume 62, pp. 293-299 

Ben Salem H, Nefzaoui A and Ben Salem L 2004 Spineless cactus (Opuntia ficus indica f. inermis) and oldman saltbush (Atriplex nummularia L.) as alternative supplements for growing Barbarine lambs given straw-based diets. Small Ruminant Research, Volume 51, pp.  65–73 

Central Statistical Agency (CSA) 2008 Results of Agricultural Sample Surveys, Government of Ethiopia. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia 188pp.  

Central Statistical Agency (CSA) 2011 Ethiopia’s Rural Facilities and Services. Tigray Regional State, Volume 1, pp.54 http://www.csa.gov.et/docs/RFS_Atlas_Tigray%20(Feb%2025-2011).pdf 

De Kock G C 1980 Drought-resistant fodder shrub crops in South Africa. In: Le Houérou H N (ed) Browse in Africa. The Current State of Knowledge. Papers presented at the International Symposium on Browse in Africa, Addis Ababa, 8-12 April 1980, and other submissions. Addis Ababa: International Livestock Centre for Africa,  pp. 399-408 

De Kock G C 2001 The use of Opuntia as a fodder source in arid areas of South Africa. In: Mondragon C and Gonzalez S (eds), cactus (Opuntia species) as forage. FAO Plant Production and Protection Paper, Volume 169, pp. 101-106 http://jajo66.files.wordpress.com/2008/10/cactus-as-forage.pdf 

Dubeux  Jr, Ferreira dos Santos J C B, Andrade Lirab M V, Cordeiro dos Santos M de,  Lima D L E and Ferreira R L C 2006 Productivity of Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Miller under different nitrogen and phosphorus fertilization and plant population in north-east Brazil. Journal of Arid Environments, Volume 67, pp. 357–372 

EZARDO (Eastern Zone Agricultural and Rural Development Office) 2010 Annual report on general agricultural related activities. pp. 45 

Firew T 2001 In vivo assessment of the nutritional value of cactus pear (Opuntia ficus-indica) as a substitute to grass hay in sheep rations. In: Proceedings of the 9^th Annual Conference, Ethiopian Society of Animal Production August 30-31, 2001, Addis  Ababa, pp. 225–234 http://esap-ethiopia.org/Publications/Proceedings/9th_Proceedings.pdf 

Firew T 2007 Evaluation of alternative feed resources for ruminants under arid zones of the tropics and sub-tropics: The case of cactus pear (Opuntia ficus indica) in Ethiopia. Ph.D Thesis, Humboldt University of Berlin, Germany.  

Firew T, Kijora C and Peters K J 2007 Effects of incorporating cactus pear (Opuntia ficus-indica) and urea-treatment of straw on the performance of sheep. Small Ruminant Research, Volume 72, pp. 157–164 

Fuentes R J M 1991 A survey of the feeding practices, costs and production of dairy and beef cattle in northern Mexico. In: Proceedings, 2^nd Annual Texas Prickly Pear Council, Kingsville TX.  

Griffith M P 2004 The origins of an important cactus crop, Opuntia ficus indica (Cactaceae): New molecular evidence. American Journal of Botany, Volume 91, pp. 1915–1921 http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/11/1915.full.pdf 

Habtu L 2005 Cactus in southern Tigray: Current status, potential uses, utilization and threat. M.Sc. Thesis, Addis Ababa University. 

Havlin J L, Beaton J D, Tisdale S L and Nilson W L 1999 Soil fertility and fertilizer: an introduction to nutrient management 6^th ed. Practice Hall upper saddle river, New Jersey. Pp 499 

Kassahun B 2008 Assessment of sheep performance under traditional management systems in Mecha Woreda, Amhara Region. M.Sc. Thesis, Mekelle University, Ethiopia. 

Kibra K 1992 Agro-ecological constraints and the role of cactus pear on household food availability. M.Sc. Thesis, Agricultural University of Norway.

Landon J R 1984 Booker tropical soil mannual. A hand book for soil survey and agricultural land evaluation with tropical and sub tropical. Lengman scientific and technical, New York. Pp. 474 

Mc Donald P, Edwards R A, Greenhalgh J F D and Morgan C A 2002 Animal Nutrition, 6^th ed. Pearson Educational Limited, Harlow, UK. 

Mengistu W 2001 Prickly pear cactus (Opuntia ficus-indica) as feed to ruminants. M.Sc. Thesis, Swedish University of Agricultural Science, Uppsala, Sweden. 

Mulugeta G 2007 Evaluation of fruit of local cultivar of cactus (Opuntia ficus indica (L.) Mill.) in Erob, Eastern Tigray, Ethiopia. M.Sc. Thesis, Haramaya University, Ethiopia. 

Nefzaoui A and Ben Salem H 2001 Opuntia a strategic fodder and efficient tool to combat desertification in the WANA region. In: Mondragon C and Perez S (Eds), cactus (Opuntia species) as forage. FAO plant production and protection paper, Volume 169, pp. 73-90 http://jajo66.files.wordpress.com/2008/10/cactus-as-forage.pdf 

Nefzaoui A and El Mourid M 2009 Cacti: A key-stone crop for the development of marginal        lands and to combat desertification. In: Campos F A P, Dubeux Jr J C B and de Melo Silva S (eds) In: Proceedings of the Sixth International Congress on Cactus Pear and Cochineal. Acta Horticulturae, Volume 11, pp 365-374 

Nefzaoui A, Inglese P and Belay T  2010 Improved utilization of cactus pear for food, feed, soil and water conservation and other products in Africa (Eds). Proceedings of International Workshop, 19- 21 October 2009. Mekelle, Ethiopia, pp. 224  

Neumann L 1997 Opening speech. In: Proceedings of the International Workshop on “Opuntia in Ethiopia: State of Knowledge in Opuntia Research” February 23-27, 1997, Mekelle University, Ethiopia and Wiesbaden Polytechnic, Germany, pp 5-9 

Nobel P S 1983 Nutrient levels in cacti in relation to nocturnal acid accumulation and growth. American Journal of Botany, Volume 70, pp. 1244-1253 

Nobel P S 1989 Productivity of desert succulents. Excelsa, Volume 14, pp. 21-28 

Retamal N, Duran J M and Fernandez J 1987 Seasonal variations of chemical composition of prickly pear (Opuntia ficus-indica). Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, Volume 38, pp. 303-311 

SAERT (Sustainable Agriculture and Environmental Rehabilitation in Tigray) 1994 Cactus fruit development project survey report. Mekelle, Ethiopia. 

Santos D C, Lira Md A, Dias F M, Farias I, Santos M V F and Santos V F 2000   Produtividade    de cultivares de palma forrageira (Opuntia e Nopalea). In: Proceedings of the 7^th Northeastern Ruminant Feeding Symposium. SNPA, Teresina, PI, Brazil, pp. 121–123. 

Snyman H A 2006 Root distribution with changes in distance and depth of two-year old cactus pears Opuntia ficus-indica and Opuntia robusta plants. South African Journal of Botany, Volume 72, pp. 434-441 

SPSS 2007  Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). Version 17, Chicago, USA. 

Stintzing F C and Carle R 2005 Cactus stems (Opuntia species): a review on their chemistry, technology, and uses. Molecular Nutrition and Food Research, Volume 49, pp. 175–194 

SZARDO (Southern zone Agricultural and Rural Development Office) 2010 Five years develepmental strategic plan of southern zone Tigray. pp. 75  

Tesfay B, Zimmerman H G, Hailu T and Dereje A 2006 Introducing the carmine cochineal (Dactylopius coccus Costa) to cactus pear plantations in Tigray, Northern Ethiopia. In: Lemma Dessalegn et al (eds). Proceedings of the Inaugural and 1^st Ethiopian Horticultural Science Society Conference, 27-30 March 2006, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, pp. 71-76 

Tikabo G, Solomon M and Alemu Y 2006 Effect of wilting of cactus pear (Opuntia ficus-indica) on feed utilization in sheep. Tropical Science, Volume 46, pp. 37–40  

Van Soest P J 1994 Nutritional Ecology of the Ruminant 2^nd ed. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York. 

Waramit N, Moore K J and Heggensteller A H 2011 Composition of native warm-season grasses for bio-energy production in response to nitrogen fertilization rate and harvest date. Agronomy Journal, Volume 103, pp. 655–662 https://www.agronomy.org/publications/aj/articles/103/3/655 

Received 23 August 2012; Accepted 3 January 2013; Published 5 February 2013

Go to top