Climatic trends, risk perceptions and coping strategies of smallholder cattle farmers in some villages of Bhutan
N Dorji, J Thinley1, K Wangdi2, K Rizal3, K Tshering4, Cheda4, G Kibria5, K Rabgay6 and Y Dorji6
Department of Animal Science, College of Natural Resources, The Royal University of Bhutan
nedup@cnr.edu.bt
1 Department of Sustainable Development, College of Natural Resources, The Royal University of Bhutan
2 Renewable Natural Resources, Ministry of Agriculture and Forest, PemaGatshel, Samtshe, Bhutan
3 Renewable Natural Resources, Ministry of Agriculture and Forest, Dorokha, Samtshe, Bhutan
4 Renewable Natural Resources, Ministry of Agriculture and Forest, Daga, Bhutan
5 School of Applied Sciences, RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia
6 Renewable Natural Resources, Ministry of Agriculture and Forest, Nabi, Trongsa, Bhutan
Abstract
Climate change and variability is a global issue, and it affects the small subsistence farmers of Himalayan developing countries like Bhutan. We used a set of semi-structure questionnaire to interview the farmers to understand and analyze local perceptions and reactive responses adapted to climate uncertainties in some villages of Bhutan. Farmers were aware of climate change, and radio and television were identified as the main sources of climate change/global warming related information. In general, farmers have observed rainfall anomalies and prolong dry seasons for the past decades and these were the main threats to their livestock farming. Increased diseases and parasites incidence were also observed, which may be related rising in temperature. Households faced an increasing water shortage and insufficient forage supply that attributed to poor cattle health and cattle production. Farmers are using different coping strategies to adapt to change; these are the plantation of supplementary forage resources, providing concentrated high protein feed and practicing forest grazing. However, we found that adaptation to climate change by Bhutanese farmers’ was influenced by socio-economic and political dynamics.
Keywords: adaptation strategy, climate change, perception, cattle farming
Introduction
Climate change (the rise in temperatures, carbon dioxide, sea-level, ocean acidification and an increase in the frequency and intensity of extreme events) will cause significant challenges and problems in various sectors including climate-sensitive agriculture, water resources, and ecosystems. In particular, climate change is likely to pose major threats and risks to sustainable settings in farming communities (Broom et al 2013) and the livelihood of farmers in Asia and Africa (Kibria 2016).
Bhutan is a small landlocked Kingdom (38 394 square kilometres). It is located on the southern slopes of the eastern Himalayas. Himalayans ecosystems are the most vulnerable to climate shock since temperature changes are pronounced at the higher elevation. Glaciers, ice and snow cover of the greater Himalayan are receding more rapidly (due to global warming) which would cause major changes in hydrological cycles and thus would impact on water resources (shortage of water), agriculture, livestock, ecosystems and biodiversity (Kibria et al 2016). Climate change has also brought prolonged drought with erratic rainfall, frequent pests and diseases outbreak (Gauly et al 2013).
The increase in CO2 concentration and temperature favours those crops that use the C3 photosynthetic pathway (wheat, barley, rice, and soybean), whereas C4 plants such as maize, sorghum, millet and sugarcane are less responsive to enriched CO2 levels ( Rust and Rust 2013 ; Wheeler and Reynolds 2013 ). In the Himalayas, crop yield is expected to decrease by 5 - 30% by 2050 due to global warming (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [ IPCC] 2007). Maize yield, which is a primary feedstuff in animal feed is predicted to decline by 7 - 10% from 2030 - 2055 ( Wheeler and Reynolds 2013 ) and so, feed price would obviously rise ( Rust and Rust 2013; Silanikove and Koluman 2015 ). In addition, livestock in the central Europe suffered from heat stress because of the rise in global temperature (Gauly et al 2013). With projected higher temperature due to climate change, beef cattle and sheep are likely to experience increased incidences of physiological stress, stress-related deaths, weight loss, decreased reproduction rates and reduction in milk yields (Kibria et al 2013). Moreover, the feed shortage, acute water shortage and the rise in global temperature would adversely affect metabolism, impair physiology, and health of animals. Consequently, small subsistence farmers who depend largely on agriculture and livestock (especially cattle) for their livelihoods would be the most vulnerable to climate change related uncertainties.
Cattle is one of the most important livestock species contributors in the sustaining livelihood of Bhutanese farmers and they have multiple roles which includes; draft power, milk, manure, and wealth. But, presently, farmers keep cattle mainly for milk production. Consequently, artificial insemination, crossbreeding and pasture development programmes are the main strategies initiated to increase the milk production in Bhutan. In Bhutan, the demand for dairy products has continued to grow rapidly due to population explosion, changes in lifestyle and increased in income. Achieving food security is one of the main goals in Bhutan’s developmental philosophy to achieve the Gross National Happiness, and the Global Sustainable Development Goals (2016-2030). In order to reduce impacts of climate change/climate variability at the local level, farmers’ knowledge and experience towards coping mechanisms should be recognized. Until to date, there is no latest, reliable and evidence-based information available to Bhutanese’s farmers on climate change impacts nor there have been attempts to assess the impact of climate change on cattle production system in Bhutan. The aim of this study was: i) to analyze the local farmers’ perception on climate change and climate variability impact on cattle production system, and ii) to assess the reactive responses of farmers in order to assist policy-makers on developing and strengthening resilience strategies to climate change in Bhutan and other nearby Himalayan regions.
Materials and methods
Study sites and sample collection
A total of 190 cattle farming households (Wangdue, 39; Punakha, 37; Dophoogchen, 20; Gaserling-Tsendagang, 39; Nabi, 25; Deothang, 30) representing samples from east, west, central and south zones of Bhutan were interviewed from December 2015 – February 2016 using snowball sampling method (Figure 1). Snowball or chain sampling is a type of sampling when a group of people recommends potential participants for a study, or directly recruits them for the study. Those participants then recommend additional participants, and so on, thus building up like a snowball rolling down a hill (https://www.researchgate.net/post/What_is_snowball_sampling). Accordingly, we visited the household who reared cattle and ranked those cattle which are the most important livestock to them, and then further identified those families who depend on cattle in sustaining their livelihood. These sampled households were located within a radius of 3 hrs walk from the nearest road. Though there are several drivers that can influence the livestock production system, but our focus was in the context of climate change.
 |
| Figure 1. Snowball sampling study areas in Bhutan during December 2015- February 2016 |
A three-page semi-structured questionnaire consisting of two sections with 15 questions (closed- and open- ended) was used to interview the farmers. The questionnaire was aimed to collect and collate the following information; i) types of major livestock owned; ii) herd type and composition; iii) grazing system and forage availability in the past decades. In addition, iv) farmers’ perception , observation and experience on climate change and variability, v) coping and adaptation strategy employed to combat climate change and variability for the past 10 years were also collected via the questionnaire.
Data analysis
All data gathered were based on farmer’s perception, experience, and observation. Data were entered and checked for typo errors in Microsoft excel. Descriptive statistic (cross tab) in SPSS version 23 was used to report the change in livestock and herd composition, grazing system, and forage availability. In addition, qualitative data (interviewees’ observation on climate change and variability for the last 10 years) were expressed in percentage.
Results and discussion
Livestock numbers over the last ten years
Livestock (chicken, pig, goat, cattle) diversification is crucial to adapt to climate change and climate variability and livelihood of rural Bhutanese, but our survey (December 2015-February 2016), reveals that there has been a decreasing in trends in livestock numbers over the last ten years (Table 1). The National Statistics of Bhutan also reported a decrease in livestock species and the numbers in Bhutan from 2004 – 2014 (NSB 2005, 2015). We found that most of the farmers have either stopped or gradually reduced to rear chickens and pigs because of the religious belief. Farmers from Nabi, for example, stated that the “sheep population has decreased rapidly in recent years because of the availability of cheap synthetic clothes. On the other hand, they see it as a sin to rear chicken and pig for meat”. One household in Punakha kept a tsethar goat (tsethar means animals which were saved for the purpose of slaughtering). Noticeably, goats are kept for chevon (meat) production in the southern part of the country (Gaserling-Tsendagang and Dophoogchen), where people do occasionally drink goat’s milk with the believe that goat milk will cure them of disease like malaria. However, the goat population at Gaserling-Tsendagang and Dophoogchen have decreased by 10% and 45% respectively (Table 1). In Dophoogchen, one-half of respondents viewed chicken population has remained the same and the chicken population especially layers has increased in Bhutan ( NSB 2005, 2015) because an economic return. On the contrary, we found that there has been a 20% decrease in chicken numbers over the last ten years (Table 1).
|
Table 1. Changes in livestock species population (in percent) over the last 10 years |
||||||
|
Wangdue |
Punakha |
Deothang |
Dophoogchen |
Nabi |
Gaserling- |
|
|
Chicken |
||||||
|
No chicken |
81.6 |
94.9 |
93.3 |
25 |
56 |
44.7 |
|
Remain same |
7.9 |
2.6 |
3.3 |
50 |
16 |
26.3 |
|
Increase |
0 |
0 |
0 |
5 |
12 |
13.2 |
|
Decrease |
10.5 |
2.6 |
3.3 |
20 |
16 |
15.8 |
|
Pig |
||||||
|
No pig |
95 |
97.4 |
93.3 |
30 |
88 |
71.1 |
|
Remain same |
0 |
0 |
3.3 |
30 |
8 |
18.4 |
|
Increase |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
2.6 |
|
Decrease |
5 |
2.6 |
3.3 |
40 |
4 |
7.9 |
|
Goat |
||||||
|
No goat |
100 |
95 |
93.3 |
15 |
93.3 |
47.4 |
|
Remain same |
0 |
0 |
3.3 |
35 |
3.3 |
39.5 |
|
Increase |
0 |
2.5 |
0 |
5 |
0 |
2.6 |
|
Decrease |
0 |
2.5 |
3.3 |
45 |
3.3 |
10.5 |
|
Cattle |
||||||
|
No cattle |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
|
Increase |
57.9 |
43.2 |
23.3 |
0 |
4 |
18.4 |
|
Remain same |
13.2 |
13.5 |
0 |
5 |
24 |
21.1 |
|
Decrease |
29 |
43.2 |
76.7 |
95 |
72 |
60.5 |
|
Local cattle |
||||||
|
No cattle |
13.5 |
5.9 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
5.4 |
|
Remain same |
18.9 |
2.9 |
0 |
5 |
20 |
35.1 |
|
Increase |
32.4 |
29.4 |
3.3 |
0 |
0 |
2.7 |
|
Decrease |
35.1 |
61.8 |
96.7 |
95 |
80 |
56.8 |
|
Improved cattle |
||||||
|
No cattle |
34.3 |
38.9 |
0 |
10 |
16 |
10.8 |
|
Remain same |
5.7 |
0 |
0 |
15 |
8 |
21.6 |
|
Increase |
60 |
58.3 |
100 |
55 |
76 |
64.9 |
|
Decrease |
0 |
2.8 |
0 |
20 |
0 |
2.7 |
We found that the old age practice of cattle migration in Nabi and Wangdue has either stopped or reduced that may be reflected in the decrease in cattle numbers by 72-80% (see Table 1). Our results are in agreement with Gyeltshen et al (2010 ). Furthermore, changes in lifestyle, increased in the number of improved cattle (55% to 100%; Table 1), pastureland development, stall-feeding and wildlife conflicts all contributed towards an expansion of cattle farming in the study areas. Nevertheless, we found that within the last 10 years or so, there had been a decrease in local cattle numbers and an increase in improved cattle numbers in farms we surveyed (Table 1). Buffum et al (2009) also reported an increase in improved cattle in Yakpugang community of Bhutan. Production performance, availability of grazing land and labour were main reasons cited for changes in cattle herd composition (Figure 2). The high milk yielder Jersey and their cross have replaced the hardy local cattle ‘Siri’ in Wangdue, Punakha, Deothang and Nabi. Moreover, the availability of labour has predominately influenced the cattle herd size in Wangdue (30%) and Gaserling-Tshendagang (60%) which agreed to the findings of Buffum et al (2009) and Nćss (2010). In Dophoogchen, farmers prefer Jersey-cross over local cattle mainly due to lack of gazing land (60%) and labour shortage (33%). In the 1990s, dairy farmer group was established in Deothang in order to achieve self-sufficiency in dairy products and raise farmer’s income. Such measures brought significant changes in cattle composition in the dairy farms of Deothang (where there has been a 100% increases in improved cattle; Table 1).
Grazing system
There was a significant change in the grazing system for the last 10 years, though forest grazing was the most available forage resource in Wangdue (69.4%) and Gaserling-Tsendagang (42.1%) as shown in Figure 2. Fallow land (with crop residues) was predominantly used for grazing cattle in Dophoogchen (68.4%) and Punakha (54.1%) in winter, while pastureland was commonly used for grazing in Deothang (58.6%). The change in the grazing system is influenced by cattle-type because more farmers were willing to rear Jersey and their hybrids. Cattle are allowed to graze on fallow land especially during the winter season at times of forage shortage. The fallow land has been ranked as the second reliable source of forages in the study areas since last few decades.
Forest grazing is widely practiced in Bhutan since time immemorial because it is the cheapest method of raising cattle. In this practice, animals are left to graze freely. Besides, it allows herders to collect looped fodder trees from the forest for their animals for later feeding. It (forest grazing) is one of the critical sources of nitrogen (urine and dung) for the forest, grazing also facilitates thinning out the tree seedlings (Buffum et al 2009), and reducing the risk of forest fire. But, the forest grazing is also a destructive method to the control of natural vegetation due to uncontrolled or overgrazing. Overgrazing also cause loss of carbon from soil (Abril and Butcher 2001; Abril et al. 2005), as well as adversely affects soil properties, which results in reduced infiltration, accelerated runoff and soil erosion (Czeglédi and Radácsi 2005). As a consequence, the government has restricted free cattle herding in the forest. In addition, most of the interviewees narrated a decrease forage quantity in the forest compared to the past 10 years (Wangdue, 38.9%; Punakha, 44.1%; Dophoogchen, 90%; Nabi, 88%; Gaserling-Tsendagang, 72.9%). Improper management of forage resources might have attributed to less forage availability to the cattle, and consequently, forcing herders to enter into the deep forest for herding, unlike past years. Moreover, the Government is committed to maintain at least 60% of forest coverage at all the times. Thus, there is a need for integration of grazing land and forestry (silvopastoral system) in order to ensure that sufficient forage for cattle are always available and meet the mandate of government. The silvo-pastoral system involving plantation of fodder trees is being widely practiced elsewhere to increase the efficiency of a small-scale livestock, reduce soil erosion and increase soil fertility (Broom et al 2013; Franzel et al 2014 ), and provide cover to forage grasses ( Broom et al 2013).
 |
 |
| Figure 2. Grazing (feeding) system in the studied areas | |
Awareness of climate change and variability
Most of the interviewees testified reveals that climate is changing (86.7%-92.1% ; Wangdue, 92.1%; Punakha, 89.5%; Deothang, 86.7%; Dophoogchen, 90%; Nabi, 91.3%; Gaserling-Tsendagang, 89.5%). They (respondents) further believed that the anthropogenic activity was the main cause of climate change (60%-87%), though some also believed that climate-related hazards are a punishment of the God (2.6% to 5.4%) as shown in Table 2. A high percentage of interviewees from Dophoogchen (40%) however, do not know the main causes of climate change.
|
Table 2. Farmers perception of climate change and variability in the six areas (in percent) |
||||||
|
Wangdue |
Punakha |
Deothang |
Dophoogchen |
Nabi |
Gaserling- |
|
|
Cause for climate change |
||||||
|
Human activities |
70.3 |
86.2 |
85.2 |
60 |
87.0 |
81.6 |
|
God punishments |
8.1 |
13.8 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
5.3 |
|
Human activities and god punishment |
5.4 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
2.6 |
|
I don’t know |
16.2 |
0 |
14.8 |
40 |
13 |
10.5 |
|
Information for climate change |
||||||
|
Yes |
91.9 |
94.4 |
88.9 |
75 |
91.3 |
78.4 |
|
No |
8.1 |
5.6 |
11.1 |
25 |
8.7 |
21.6 |
We found that farmers obtained information on climate change from a variety of ways and sources, namely mass communication (radio, television, newspaper), attending public meetings, through extension agents and via public servants and neighbours. However, the main sources of information varied from regions to regions (Figure 3). For example, a higher proportion of respondents in Wangdue and Deothang regions relied on radio (47.1%) and television (44%) respectively, while the television and public meeting (47.1%) were the main sources of climatic information in Punakha. Farmers from Dophoogchen collected information on climate change commonly from the radio and extension agents (31.3%). There are no academic or vocational training institutes in Bhutan to advice or train up farmers on climate change and risks of climate-related hazards. But, a few percent of respondents regarded extension agents as a learning source for climate-related hazards. In general, farmers depend on livestock extensionists for technical and veterinary support to enhance their farm productivity. Thus extension officials can be utilised also devote their time to advise and train up farmers so that the communities become climate resilient and able to adapt to climate change.
 |
 |
 |
 |
 |
 |
| Figure 3. Various sources of information on climate change | |
Farmers’ perception of climate change and variability is shown in Table 3. There were diverse views from the respondents on seasonal rainfall patterns and temperature for the past decades. Nevertheless, most of the respondents from Wangdue, Punakha and Dophoogchen informed that the length of rainy season and amount of rainfall has decreased while the rainfall has become uncertain. A similar rainfall anomaly (shorter and heavy rainfall) was experienced by people of neighbouring Sikkim, India ( Sharma and Rai 2012 ) and Melamchi valley, Nepal (Sujakhu et al 2016). On the contrary, higher proportion farmers of Nabi expressed an increased length of the rainy season with more rainfall. Moreover, respondents of Deothang and Gaserling-Tsendagang lacked consensus on the amount of rainfall and duration of the monsoon season. The disagreements on seasonal and rainfall patterns among the farmers might be due to the fact that the farmer perceived and interpreted climate change and variability in terms of impact to their agricultural activities and agricultural production/yields (Ogalleh et al 2012; Kima et al 2015). Some farmers surveyed experienced changes in seasonal and rainfall patterns, coupled with the high hailstorm in some parts of Wangdue and perceived that climate-related changes are the most destructive to their crops.
Summertime precipitation starts from June – August, but the respondents viewed that the erratic rainfall and rain intensity have more or less increased compared to previous years. Rainfall anomalies affect pasture and forage availability (Mertz et al 2009; Kima et al 2015), and therefore, such rain anomalies would impact dairy farmers and their livelihoods. According to interviewees, the cattle frequently attacked and foraged the agricultural field and this is the cause for the common conflicts between crop and livestock farmers, which is also reported in Boulgou province, Burkina Faso (Kima et al 2015).
In the six study areas, farmers who experienced a drier and warmer weather patterns perceived that this may be due to climate change. They observed that drying up of watersheds (ponds, streams) and as a result water has become a very scarce resource for the farmers and their livestock. The water has persisted in several areas including Punakha (64.7%) and Wangdue (70.3%), while in the other areas the water crises has increased (Deothang, 93.1%; Dophoogchen, 95%; Nabi, 87.5%; Gaserling-Tsendagang, 63.2%) as shown in Table 3. On the other hand, for every rise in 1 şC, water required by cattle increases by 2.8% (Lunde and Lindtjřrn 2013). To overcome the water scarcity, the Government has initiated a watershed management programme in some areas. Tap water was also installed to supply water to households to solve water shortages. The above measures increased water availability in the areas compared to last 10 years as follows: Wangdue, 8.1%; Punakha, 17.7%; Deothang, 6.9%; Nabi, 12.5%; Gaserling-Tsendagang, 10.5
|
Table 3. Public experience on climate change and variability (rainfall patterns) in the six studied areas (in percent) |
||||||
|
Wangdue |
Punakha |
Deothang |
Dophoogchen |
Nabi |
Gaserling- |
|
|
Length of rainy season |
||||||
|
Increased |
18.4 |
13.2 |
31 |
16.7 |
62.5 |
44.7 |
|
Decreased |
65.8 |
65.8 |
20.7 |
77.8 |
37.5 |
42.1 |
|
Remained same |
7.9 |
21.1 |
44.8 |
0 |
0 |
10.5 |
|
I don’t know |
5.3 |
0 |
3.5 |
5.6 |
0 |
2.6 |
|
Rainfall amount |
||||||
|
Increased |
31.6 |
13.5 |
32.1 |
21.1 |
62.5 |
46 |
|
Decreased |
57.9 |
62.2 |
17.9 |
73.7 |
37.5 |
46 |
|
Remained same |
5.3 |
24.3 |
50 |
0 |
0 |
8.1 |
|
I don’t know |
5.3 |
0 |
0 |
5.3 |
0 |
0 |
|
Erratic rainfall |
||||||
|
Increased |
86.8 |
69.4 |
41.4 |
40 |
100 |
91.9 |
|
Decreased |
2.6 |
13.9 |
6.9 |
53.3 |
0 |
2.7 |
|
Remained same |
5.3 |
13.9 |
44.8 |
0 |
0 |
5.4 |
|
I don’t know |
5.3 |
2.8 |
6.9 |
6.7 |
0 |
0 |
|
Rainfall intensity |
||||||
|
Increased |
44.7 |
34.3 |
51.7 |
45 |
65.2 |
35.1 |
|
Decreased |
42.1 |
42.9 |
17.2 |
50 |
34.8 |
43.2 |
|
Remained same |
5.3 |
22.9 |
31 |
0 |
0 |
13.5 |
|
I don’t know |
7.89 |
0 |
0 |
5 |
0 |
8.1 |
|
Temperature |
||||||
|
Increased |
81.1 |
61.1 |
89.7 |
90 |
95.5 |
94.4 |
|
Decreased |
2.7 |
11.1 |
3.5 |
5 |
0 |
2.8 |
|
Remained same |
13.5 |
25 |
6.9 |
0 |
0 |
2.8 |
|
I don’t know |
2.7 |
2.8 |
0 |
5 |
4.6 |
0 |
|
Long dry season |
||||||
|
Increased |
62.2 |
70.6 |
62.1 |
79 |
65.2 |
50 |
|
Decreased |
10.8 |
14.7 |
6.9 |
15.8 |
30.4 |
11.1 |
|
Remained same |
21.6 |
11.8 |
27.6 |
0 |
0 |
33.3 |
|
I don’t know |
5.4 |
2.9 |
3.5 |
5.3 |
4.4 |
5.6 |
|
Shortage of drinking water |
||||||
|
Increased |
21.6 |
17.7 |
93.1 |
95 |
87.5 |
63.2 |
|
Decreased |
8.1 |
17.7 |
6.9 |
0 |
12.5 |
10.5 |
|
Remained same |
70.3 |
64.7 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
15.8 |
|
I don’t know |
0 |
0 |
0 |
5 |
0 |
10.5 |
|
Use different crops |
||||||
|
Increased |
17.1 |
19.4 |
10.3 |
79 |
90.9 |
21.6 |
|
Decreased |
22.9 |
13.9 |
89.7 |
10.5 |
4.6 |
27 |
|
Remained same |
60 |
66.7 |
0 |
5.3 |
0 |
27 |
|
I don’t know |
0 |
0 |
0 |
5.3 |
4.6 |
24.3 |
Prolonged dry season has caused farmers to use different crop varieties (drought and heat resistant crops) in Dophoogchen and Nabi, which is one of the important adaptation actions to climate change. But, most of the farmers from Wangdue (60%), Punakha (66.7%) and Gaserling-Tsendagang (27%) did not change their cropping patterns as shown in Table 3. In general, livestock heterogeneity has decreased in study areas. Pigs, chickens, and goats were not reared at all by most of the farmers with the exception to Gaserling-Tsendagang. This indicates that farmers of Gaserling-Tsendagang have a higher adaptive capacity to climate-related hazards than other study areas based on crop and livestock farming practices.
Effects of climate variability on small holder cattle farmers
A number of farmers expressed their views that climate change and variability did not pose any threats on their cattle or cattle farming (range: 10%-53.9%). These includes Wangdue (no threat, 45.8%; I don’t know, 29.2%), Punakha (no, 42.9%), Deothang (no, 53.9%; I don't know, 19.2%), Dophoogchen (I don't know, 66.7%), Nabi (no, 10%) and Gaserling-Tsendagang (no, 7.7%; I don’t know, 23.1%). However, the farmers mentioned that their cattle and cattle farming were affected due to acute shortage of water (drying of streams, 57.1%-91.3%), shortage of forage (46.4%-100%), increased incidence of diseases and parasites (8.7%-96.6%), and heat stress (0%-73.9%) as presented in Table 4. The above factors (drought, scarcity of water, heat waves and heat stress, diseases) are associated with climate change (Kibria et al 2013; Sejian et al 2015).
|
Table 4. Impact of climate uncertainties to cattle farming (in percent) |
||||||
|
Wangdue |
Punakha |
Deothang |
Dophoogchen |
Nabi |
Gaserling-
|
|
|
Lack of forage (grass) in pasture |
47.8 |
46.4 |
96.6 |
100 |
100 |
100 |
|
New grass species invasion of pastures |
21.7 |
25 |
10.3 |
95 |
91.3 |
18.9 |
|
New shrub species invasion of pastures |
4.4 |
0 |
10.3 |
95 |
82.6 |
2.7 |
|
Drying streams (lack of water) |
65.2 |
57.1 |
62.1 |
80 |
91.3 |
78.4 |
|
Increase outbreak of diseases (unknown) |
8.7 |
7.1 |
10.3 |
85 |
82.6 |
62.2 |
|
Increase of parasitic population |
8.7 |
7.1 |
96.6 |
90 |
78.3 |
64.9 |
|
Death due to heat stress (or drought) |
0 |
3.6 |
6.9 |
35 |
73.9 |
24.3 |
|
Death due to feed shortage |
8.7 |
3.6 |
10.3 |
35 |
82.6 |
2.7 |
In all the six study areas, drying of streams and forage shortages were the biggest challenges to cattle farming. Notably, the farmers of Dophoogchen, Nabi, and Gaserling-Tsendagang experienced insufficient forage due to decreased in precipitation and/or increased in settlements. Forage shortages due to climate change (decreasing rainfalls, increasing temperatures) is also reported by several authors (e.g. in Likipia of Kenya (Ogalleh et al 2012), Boulgou of Burkina Faso (Kima et al 2015) and Melamchi of Nepal (Sujakhu et al 2016). In addition to climate change, socio-economic development, and political dynamics have also influenced the availability of grazing land for the livestock in Bhutan. For example, farmers from Punakha quoted:“with the construction of resorts and roads, grazing lands have been reduced and, this affected cattle farming cattle health and cattle production”. Our findings agree with Mertz et al (2009), Sujakhu et al (2016) and Kima et al (2015) that the climate change may not be alone driver for the changes in cattle farming, Climate change related excessive radiation, the high temperature along with prolonging drought and dry season, would cause plants to mature quicker causing loss of cell water content and lignification of plant cells and an increase in fibre content (Wheeler and Reynolds 2013 ). Lignified plant cells have a lower energy value, are less digestible, have poorer forage quality and are not attractive to livestock, therefore, reduces the performance of an animal (Wheeler and Reynolds 2013; Silanikove and Koluman 2015 ). Therefore, there is a need to explore forage species (grasses and other plant species) which are heat-resistant and drought-resistant. Plantation of fodder trees is another important strategy because trees would provide shade to grasses and this will ensure availability of high-quality succulent forage while retaining the nutritive content (Broom et al 2013). Besides, enhancing the silvopastoral system using fodder trees and/or shrubs with grasses would have several advantages (e.g. increase of biodiversity, reduction of tick infestation, carbon sequestration or the carbon sink, and improvement of the soil fertility (Broom et al 2013).
Based on this study, there has been a high prevalence of parasites in Deothang (96.6%), Dophoogchen (90%), Nabi (78.3%) and Gaserling-Tsendagang (64.9%). In addition, the incidence of unknown diseases outbreaks has increased in Dophoogchen (85%), Nabi (82.6%) and Gaserling-Tsendagang (62.2%). The high incidence of diseases and parasites are due to climate change is also reported in Burkina Faso (Kima et al 2015). The increased precipitation and warmer climatic conditions might have favoured increasing the susceptibility of animals to new diseases and pests (Hoffmann 2010; Nardone et al 2010 ; Rust and Rust 2013 ; Kibria et al 2013). Another possible impact of high temperature and precipitation is that it favours the growth of mycotoxin-producing fungi and accumulation of fungal toxins (Aflatoxin, Fusarium toxins) in livestock feedstuffs such as maize, wheat (Nardone et al 2010; Kibria et al 2013). Furthermore, the increased water scarcity experienced by the farmers would also pose a greater risk of water-borne disease outbreaks (Hoffmann 2010; Rust and Rust, 2013 ; Silanikove and Koluman, 2015).
The majority of participants illustrated that with the increase in
temperature, animals had become highly sensitive to heat stress which
resulted in higher animal morbidity (Punakha, 3.6%; Deothang, 6.9%;
Dophoogchen, 35%; Nabi, 73.9%; Gaserling-Tsendagang, 24.3%) as shown in
Table 4. During hot weather, animals fast (cattle) respire resulting in
decreases in CO2 and increase pH concentration in the blood.
To counteract, kidney secretes HCO3‒ to maintain
the blood pH, but HCO3‒ l level becomes inadequate
to buffer and maintain a healthy pH in the rumen compartment (Nardone et
al 2010). As a consequence, animals health, reproduction, and production
are affected due to heat stress
(
Hoffmann 2010;
Silanikove and Koluman
2015).
Thus planting of fodder trees will provide shade and help to minimize
heat related stress in livestock (Broom et al 2013).
Coping and adaptation strategies to climate change and variability
The local mountainous smallholder farmers use different coping strategies to adapt to climate change and adjusting their livestock in a changing climate (Figure 4)
