| Livestock Research for Rural Development 21 (10) 2009 | Guide for preparation of papers | LRRD News | Citation of this paper |
Poultry choice tests using the seeds of different perennial species were conducted. The tests were extended to cover berries from other perennial species. Those species which the chickens ate or ate avidly were listed in Part I (Simons 2009). The non-preferred or less-preferred species are listed in this second part.
Keywords: acacias, berries, cowpeas, poultry, preferences, seeds
Part I listed perennials which yielded seeds and berries which were preferred by chickens in a free-range environment. However, during the course of the study, many species emerged which were non- or less-preferred. For the sake of completion, these species are listed in the following.
Because of the potential value of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata), further consideration is given to the results of the tests using this species.
The methods were described in Part I and so are only briefly covered here. Chickens’ eating preferences were recorded, and put into one of four preference indicators: “ate avidly”, “ate”, “ate reluctantly”, and “did not eat”. These indicators were determined according to the following schedule:
· Ate avidly – sample completely eaten within 9 mins,
· Ate – sample completely eaten within 90 mins,
· Ate reluctantly (A.r.) – sample partially or completely eaten in greater than 90 mins, and
· Did not eat – nothing eaten during the day.
Results for the species that recorded in the non-preferred range are given in Table 1. This includes the results of some later tests which were done after the submission of Part I.
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Table 1. Wattles in the non-preferred range |
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| Species name | Common name | Preference |
| Acacia adsurgens | Warlpiri mulga | A.r./ate avidly |
| Acacia ampliceps | Salt wattle | A.r./ate |
| Acacia auriculiformis | Earpod wattle | Did not eat/a.r. |
| Acacia calamifolia | Wallowa | A.r./ate avidly |
| Acacia celastrifolia | Grey myrtle wattle | A.r./ate |
| Acacia complanata | Long pod wattle | A.r. |
| Acacia confluens | Wyrilda | Did not eat |
| Acacia coriacea | Dogwood | Did not eat |
| Acacia craspedocarpa | Leather leaf acacia | Did not eat |
| Acacia cyclops | Western coastal wattle | Did not eat/a.r. |
| Acacia dictophleba | Desert wattle | A.r./ate |
| Acacia farnesiana | Needle or Mimosa bush | Did not eat |
| Acacia floribunda | Sally wattle | A.r./ate avidly |
| Acacia irrorata | Green wattle | A.r. |
| Acacia iteaphylla | Flinders Range wattle | Did not eat/a.r. |
| Acacia longifolia | Sydney golden wattle | A.r./ate avidly |
| Acacia macradenia | Zigzag wattle | A.r. |
| Acacia maidenii | Maiden’s wattle | A.r./ate |
| Acacia microbotrya | Manna wattle | A.r. |
| Acacia murrayana | Sand plain wattle | Did not eat/a.r. |
| Acacia pendula | Weeping myall, boree | A.r. |
| Acacia prominens | Gosford wattle | A.r., ate avidly |
| Acacia retinoides | Wirilda, swamp wattle | A.r. |
| Acacia rhodophloia | Western red mulga | Did not eat |
| Acacia salicina | Sally wattle | A.r. |
| Acacia saligna | Golden wreath wattle | A.r. |
| Acacia stenophylla | Eumong, river myall | Did not eat |
| Acacia vestita | Hairy wattle | A.r. |
| Acacia victoriae | Bramble wattle | Did not eat |
A preference result like that for Acacia adsurgens – “ate/ate avidly” is explained by the fact that successive tests were done, with results progressing thru categories “a.r.”, “ate”, “ate avidly”. On the other hand, a result like that for Acacia prominens – “A.r., ate avidly” meant that the chickens recorded only “a.r.” and “ate avidly” (no in-between categories).
The seeds of 102 other seed-producing perennial species were tested with 16 species in the preferred range (see Part I) and 86 in the non-preferred range. Table 2 below lists these species.
| Table 2. Seed-producing species in non-preferred range | ||
| Species name | Common name | Preference |
| Adenanthera pavonina | Red sandalwood | Did not eat |
| Agave hartmanii | Smallflower century plant | Did not eat |
| Albizia julibrissin | Silk tree | Did not eat |
| Albizia lebbeck | Siris tree | Did not eat |
| Albizia lophantha | Cape wattle | Did not eat |
| Alnus glutinosa | Black alder | A.r. |
| Aloe vera | Aloe vera | Did not eat |
| Alpinia caerulea | Native ginger | A.r. |
| Alyxia ruscifolia | Chain fruit | Did not eat |
| Bauhinia variegata | Orchid tree | Did not eat |
| Bixa orellana | Annatto | Did not eat |
| Bombax costatum | Red kapok tree | Did not eat |
| Brachychiton acerifolius | Illawara flame tree | Did not eat |
| Brachychiton rupestre | Narrow-leaved bottle tree | Did not eat |
| Bursaria spinosa | Blackthorn | Did not eat |
| Caeselpinia spinosa | Tara | Did not eat |
| Cajanus cajan | Pigeon pea | A.r./ate |
| Cassia tomentella | Velvet cassia | A.r. |
| Cassine australis | Red olive berry | Did not eat |
| Celtis australis | Hackberry | A.r. |
| Ceratonia siliqua | Carob | Did not eat |
| Chionanthus ramiflora | Native olive | Did not eat/a.r. |
| Combretum imberbe | Leadwood | Did not eat |
| Cortaderia selloana | Pampas grass | Did not eat |
| Crotalaria grahamiana | Rattlepod | Did not eat |
| Croton sylvaticus | Woodland croton | A.r./ate |
| Daviesia mimosoides | Narrow-leaf bitter pea | A.r./ate |
| Dietes spp. | Native lily | Did not eat |
| Dodonaea lanceolata | Hopbush | A.r./ate |
| Dodonaea triquetra | Large-leaf hop-bush | A.r./ate |
| Dodonaea viscosa | Native hop-bush | A.r./ate |
| Elattostachys microcarpa | Scrub tamarind | Did not eat |
| Erythrina abissinica | Red hot poker tree | Did not eat |
| Erythrina haerdii | Coral tree | Did not eat |
| Erythrina lysistemon | Lucky bean tree | Did not eat |
| Erythrina poeppigiana | Mountain immortelle | Did not eat |
| Fraxinus velutina | Desert ash | Did not eat |
| Genista monosperma | Bridal broom | Did not eat |
| Gleditsia sinensis | Soap pod tree | Did not eat |
| Gleditsia triacanthos | Honey locust tree | Did not eat |
| Gliricidia sepium | Mother of cocoa | Did not eat |
| Gossypium spp. | Cotton | Did not eat |
| Grewia bicolor | False brandybush | Did not eat |
| Harpullia pendula | Black tulipwood | Did not eat/a.r. |
| Helianthus maximilianii | Perennial sunflower | Did not eat |
| Hibiscus cannabinus | Kenaf | Did not eat |
| Hibiscus sabdariffa | Rosella | Did not eat |
| Indigofera frutescens | River indigo | Did not eat |
| Ipomea spp. | Morning glory | Did not eat |
| Koelreuteria paniculata | Golden rain tree | Did not eat |
| Lagunaria patersonia | Norfolk Island hibiscus | Did not eat |
| Lawsonia inermis | Henna | Did not eat |
| Leucaena leucocephala | Tree lucerne | Did not eat |
| Leucaena trichodes | Arabisco | Did not eat |
| Lomandra longifolia | Spiny-headed mat-rush | Did not eat |
| Markhamia zanzabarica | Bell bean tree | Did not eat |
| Melia azederach | White cedar | A.r. |
| Melianthus comosus | Tufted honeyflower | Did not eat |
| Miscanthus sinensis var. ‘zebrinus’ | Zebra grass | Did not eat |
| Mundulea sericea | Silver bush | Did not eat/a.r. |
| Niemeyera chartacea | Smooth-leaved plum | A.r. |
| Nolina recurvata | Pony tail palm | Did not eat |
| Phytolacca octandra | Red ink plant | Did not eat |
| Pistacia terebrinthus | Cyprus turpentine | Did not eat |
| Pithecellobium flexicaule | Texas ebony | Did not eat |
| Pittosporum augustifolius | Gumby-gumby | Did not eat |
| Pittosporum phylliraeoides | Weeping pittosporum | Did not eat |
| Punica granatum | Pomegranate | A.r. |
| Quassia amara | Bitterwood | Did not eat |
| Ruttya fruticosa | Rabbit ears | Did not eat |
| Sapium sebiferum | Chinese tallow-wood | A.r. |
| Schotia capitata | Dwarf Boer-bean | Did not eat |
| Senna alata | Candle bush | A.r. |
| Senna pendula | Easter cassia | Did not eat |
| Sophora tetraptera | Kowhai | A.r./ate |
| Sophora tomentosa | Necklace pod | Did not eat |
| Tipuana tipu | Rosewood | Did not eat |
| Ulmus parvifolia | Chinese elm | Did not eat/a.r. |
| Vigna unguiculata | Cowpea – ‘Black seeded-Thai’ | A.r. |
| Vigna unguiculata | ‘Burkino Faso’ | Did not eat |
| Vigna unguiculata | ‘Crowdu butter pea’ | A.r. |
| Vigna unguiculata | ‘Purple hull’ | A.r. |
| Vigna unguiculata | Cowpea – miscellaneous sources | Did not eat/ate avidly |
| Xanthorrhoea spp. | Grass tree | Did not eat |
| Yucca filamentosa | Adam’s needle | Did not eat |
| Zizania latifolia | Manchurian wild rice | A.r./ate |
It is noteworthy, that windborne seeds usually recorded the lowest preferences. Examples are Fraxinus velutina, Markhamia zanzibarica, Nolina recurvata, and Tipuana tipu.
Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) is a variable species composed of annual and perennial forms (Singh 2002). It is included because it is potentially a very desirable food forest component. It is fast-growing and also heat, drought and particularly, shade tolerant (Mullen 1999, Mayet 2008).
Cowpea seeds are also a nutritious, high protein livestock feed (de J A Goncalves 2005). However, they contain an anti-nutritional component, principally trypsin inhibitor (Marconi et al 1993). This inhibitor is at a low level when compared with other leguminous peas and beans (Jaffe 1950). Also, depending on the variety or source, the trypsin content can have a high variability (Monti and Grillo 1983, Oluwatosin 1999).
Nevertheless, this anti-nutritional component appears to deter the chickens from eating the untreated seeds in many cases. The choice tests using seeds from a Western Australian source (Yilgarn Traders 2009) resulted mostly in poor preference indicators. On the other hand, seeds from various other sources, after an initial poor response, gave improved indicators. (See Table 2 above.) In Nicaragua, hens have been reported to eat the seeds in the fields without problem (Luna 2009). Apart from the anti-nutritional component, two further factors appear to influence cowpea’s acceptability by scavenging chickens.
Soaking the peas reduces trypsin inhibitor activity (Gatta et al 1989, Prinyawiwatkul et al 1996). As a separate exercise during the present study, different samples of peas which were being rejected by the birds were sprayed with hose water. Within several minutes, the samples were eaten by them. It is highly likely, that the soaking made the cowpeas acceptable. In other words, soaking of the peas by natural rainfall could make all the difference to the scavenging chickens’ preference.
In Part I, familiarity was mentioned as a factor that skewed the results with some of the wattles with earlier tests recording lower acceptability than later ones. A hint of this skewing was also noted with some of the cowpea tests. One notable example occurred whilst testing a batch of seeds purchased at a local retail store, sourced from Colorado, USA. The results with progressive samples were as follows:
Sample 1: Did not eat
Sample 2: A.r.
Remaining 6 samples: Ate avidly.
Results for the 28 species that recorded “ate avidly” were listed in Part I. Preference indicators for less-preferred species are included in Table 3 below, including species which recorded an “ate” indicator. Also included are the results of many later tests which were completed during the southern autumn, after the submission of Part I. (Autumn is a particularly bounteous season for berry crops.)
| Table 3. Chickens’ berry preferences in less-preferred range | ||
| Species name | Common name | Preference |
| Abrophyllum ornans | Native hydrangea | A.r. |
| Afrocarpus falcata | Sickle-leaved yellowwood | A.r./ate avidly |
| Alpinia caerulea | Native ginger | |
| Alyxia ruscifolia | Chain fruit | A.r. |
| Archontophoenix alexandrae | Alexandra palm | Did not eat |
| Ardisia crenata | Red coral berry | Did not eat |
| Breynia spp. | Nodding breynia | Ate |
| Breynia oblongifolia | Coffee bush | A.r. |
| Callicarpa pedunculata | Velvet leaf | Did not eat |
| Chamaedorea seifrizii | Reed palm | Ate |
| Cinnamomum camphora | Camphor laurel | Did not eat |
| Cissus quadrangularis | Veld grape | A.r./ate |
| Cissus rotundifolia | Peruvian grape | Ate/ate avidly |
| Clivia miniata | Clivia | Ate |
| Cordia spp. (dichotoma?) | (Fragrant manjack?) | Did not eat |
| Cordyline terminalis | Cordyline | Ate |
| Cotoneaster spp. | Cotoneaster | Ate |
| Cotoneaster conspicuus | Wintergreen cotoneaster | Did not eat |
| Crataegus smithiana | Red Mexican hawthorn | A.r. |
| Dianella spp. | Dianella | Did not eat |
| Dracaena marginata | Red-edged dracaena | Ate |
| Duranta repens | Duranta | Did not eat |
| Ehretia rigida | Cape lilac | Ate |
| Elaeodedrum australe | Red olive plum | Did not eat |
| Emmenosperma alphitonioides | Bonewood | Did not eat |
| Euonymus japonicus | Japanese spindle | Ate |
| Eustrephus latifolius | Wombat berry | Did not eat |
| Ficus benjamina | Weeping fig | Did not eat |
| Ficus longifolia | Long leaf fig | Did not eat |
| Ficus obliqua | Small-leaved fig | Did not eat |
| Ficus virgata | Figwood | A.r. |
| Glycosmis trifoliata | Orange berry | A.r./ate |
| Hamelia patens | Firebush | A.r./ate |
| Ilex spp. | Holly | Ate |
| Ilex cornuta ‘Burfordii’ | Burford’s or Chinese holly | Ate |
| Lantana camara | Lantana | Did not eat |
| Liriope muscari | Liriope | Did not eat/ate |
| Mahonia aquifolia | Oregon grape | Ate |
| Maytenus mossambicensis | Black forest spike-thorn | A.r. |
| Micromelum minutum | Lime berry | Did not eat/ate |
| Morus alba | White mulberry | Ate |
| Murraya koenigii | Curry leaf tree | Did not eat/a.r. |
| Murraya paniculata | Orange jessamine | A.r. |
| Myrtus communis | Myrtle | Did not eat |
| Nandina domestica | Sacred bamboo | Did not eat/a.r. |
| Notelaea ligustrina | Native olive | Ate |
| Ochna kirkii | Ochna | Did not eat |
| Ochna serrulata | Ochna | Did not eat |
| Ophiopogan japonicas ‘Nigrescens’ | Black mondo grass | Ate |
| Palicourea courea | Did not eat | |
| Photinia glabra | Japanese photinia | Ate |
| Polyalthia nitidissima | Canary beech | Did not eat |
| Polyscias australiana | Ivory basswood | Did not eat/ate |
| Polyscias elegans | Celerywood | Did not eat |
| Pyracantha angustifolia | Firethorn | Ate |
| Rapheolepis indica | Indian hawthorn | Ate |
| Rauvolfia ligustrina | Venenito | A.r. |
| Sabal minor | Dwarf palmetto palm | Did not eat |
| Sambucus nigra | Black elder | Ate |
| Sansevieria ehrenbergii | Blue, sword sansevieria | A.r. |
| Sansevieria forskaoliana | Did not eat | |
| Schefflera arboricola | Octopus tree | Ate |
| Sideroxylon inerme | White milkwood | Ate/ate avidly |
| Solanum mauritianum | Wild tobacco | Did not eat |
| Solanum nigrum | Black nightshade | Ate/ate avidly |
| Tabernaemontana australis | Pinwheel jessamine | Did not eat/a.r. |
| Yucca spp. | Yucca | Did not eat |
The results for four Ficus species showed that the chickens did not favor their fruits. Only Ficus hillii (Hill’s fig), reported in Part I gave a promising response. These findings do not support the statement made by Nugent and Boniface (1996) that the fruits of Ficus are generally good poultry feed.
The significance of Part I of this work lay in the resulting lists of perennial species that could be planted to upgrade the SFRB. On the contrary, Part II lists species less-favored species. Those with preference categories “did not eat” or “a.r.” are suggested as candidates for omission from the chickens’ food forest.
de J A Goncalves S M 2005 The impact of improved housing and early nutrition on the productivity of local chickens in Mozambique. MSc Thesis. Danish Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Animal Health, Welfare and Nutrition, Research Centre Foulum, PO Box 50, 8830 Tjele, Denmark. http://www.poultry.life.ku.dk/Information_resources/References/~/media/migration%20folder/upload/poultry/master_theses/poultry_masters_2003_2005/sandra_maria_de_ja_gon%C3%A7alves_the_impact_of_improved_housing_and_early_nutritrition_on_the_productivity_of_local_chickens_in_mozambique.pdf.ashx
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Simons I 2009 Upgrading the scavenging feed resource base (SFRB) for scavenging chickens; Part I. Preferred perennial species. Livestock Research for Rural Development 21(7) http://www.lrrd.org/lrrd21/7/simo21105.htm
Singh B B 2002 Recent genetic studies in cowpea. In Fatokan C A, Tarawalii S A, Singh B B, Kormawa P M, and Tamo M (editors): Challenges and opportunities for enhancing sustainable cowpea production, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, Ibadan, Nigeria: 3-13. http://books.google.com.au/books?id=0hTzTEHixz0C&pg=PA3&lpg=PA3&dq=%22recent+genetic+studies+in+cowpea%22&source=bl&ots=w7X69j_qgu&sig=mGOkqy9exPW4G7IsAuOXnxX2nBE&hl=en&ei=PO49Sp73IIrm6gP3obisDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2
Yilgarn Traders 2009 Seed catalogue. Yilgarn Traders, 339 David Road, Waggrakine, Geraldton, WA 6530, Australia http://www.permaculturenursery.com.au/seeds/docs/Seed_Catalogue.pdf
Received 17 July 2009; Accepted 18 July 2009; Published 1 October 2009