Livestock Research for Rural Development 12 (4) 2000 | Citation of this paper |
Two studies were conducted. The first study evaluated the production potential of indigenous (Tswana) chickens under an extensive free-range management system in the Gaborone agricultural region of Botswana. The second study was a survey of 25 randomly selected, commercial small-scale broiler farms in the Southern region of Botswana. Data were obtained using a structured questionnaire, interviews and direct observations of the birds and their management in the two systems.
Study 1 involved 85 farmers. Ten different common supplementary feeds fed to the free-range chickens together with soil samples from where the chickens roost were collected. The feeds were: sorghum grain (Sorghum bicolor), maize grain (Zea mays), jugo bean, also known as bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L.) Verda), tepary bean (Phaseolus acutifolius var. latifolius), millet grain (Pennisetum glaucum), melon seeds (Colocynthis citrullus L), Tswana water melon fruit (whole), sorghum milo, maize bran and sorghum beer residue (moroko). Mean adult body weight of the birds (n=713) was 2.2 and 2.0 kg for cocks and hens respectively. Average egg weight (n=188) was 48 g with an annual production of 34 eggs laid in 2 to 3 clutches. Production varied little among flocks. .Sexual maturity was attained at about 6 months for females. The crude protein content of the feeds (as-fed basis) given as supplements was: maize grain 9.8%, millet 6.5%, sorghum 11.1%, tepary bean 18.5% and jugo bean 15.8%. All the feeds had a low level of calcium, for example 0.22 % for melon seeds. The farmers kept the chickens for home consumption and occasional sales.
In study 2, all the farmers practiced intensive housing on deep litter. The number and size of the poultry houses ranged from one to eight, with floor area of less than 100m² to 1,000m². Numbers of chickens in each batch ranged from less than 1000 to 10,000 with about 4 batches in a year. The broiler strains were Ross hybrid, Indian River and Cobb with 56% of the farmers keeping Ross hybrid. Various heating methods were used for brooding with more than 40% using gas as a source of heat. Vaccinations for either gumboro and / or Newcastle were used by 76% of the farmers. Feed was provided ad libitum in all instances.
In villages in Botswana, poultry keeping is a side- line occupation because of the dominance of the beef cattle industry in the society. However, as poultry production can be increased more rapidly than that of other farm animals, it offers an opportunity for rapid growth in a developing country demanding a higher standard of human nutrition. In Botswana, chicken has only limited religious connotations and is, therefore, widely accepted as food for the human population.
In 1995 the population of chickens in Botswana was reported to be slightly over three million (MoA 1995). Of this number, 2.4 million were managed commercially with the remaining 700 thousand being kept under traditional extensive management. This paper provides some data on prevailing practices in these two systems.
The study was conducted in five villages in the Gaborone agricultural region of Botswana and involved 85 farmers selected at random. Data were obtained using a structured questionnaire, interviews and direct observations of the birds and their management. Men, women and children were interviewed but the women were the most interested and generally were in charge of of the poultry. Liveweights were taken of 713 mature birds of both sexes, all of the indigenous (Tswana) breed. Eggs (n=188) were also weighed. A total of 10 feeds commonly used as supplements [sorghum grain (Sorghum bicolor), maize grain (Zea mays), jugo bean, also known as bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L.) Verda), tepary bean (Phaseolus acutifolius var. latifolius), millet grain (Pennisetum glaucum, variety Serere 6A), melon seeds (Colocynthis citrullus L), Tswana water melon fruit (whole), sorghum milo, maize bran and sorghum beer residue (moroko)] were analysed for proximate composition (AOAC 1995). Soil samples were taken from the areas where the scavenging chickens roosted and analysed for minerals (AOAC 1995).
This study was done in the same area as the one on village chickens and involved 25 randomly selected small-scale broiler farms. The topics covered by the questionnaire and interviews were management practices such as housing, feeding, veterinary services and constraints to production. The data obtained were subjected to descriptive analysis. Cost benefit analysis was done for one well-managed small broiler farm. (AOAC 1995).
It was observed that the poultry were kept in conjunction with other types of animals especially herbivores, with 80% of the families rearing goats, 50% with cattle, 40 % with donkeys and 30% with sheep. In all cases the poultry flock was composed of the local indigenous birds (Tswana). All the farmers also produced crops such as sorghum, cow peas, water melon, millet, maize, bambara ground nuts, tepary beans and vegetables. On average, each farm household had 40 to 70 m² of land around the homestead and 10 ha for crop production. The poultry roamed and scavenged freely in the area.
At night, the chickens mostly perched in trees behind the farmers’ homesteads but in a few cases they were confined in locally constructed metal cages on raised platforms, to prevent access by snakes. It appeared that survival rates were relatively low, especially following outbreaks of Newcastle disease as few farmers vaccinated their flocks against the disease.
The mature liveweight of mature males was on average 2.20 kg (range of 1.0 to 3.9 kg) and of mature females 2.0 kg (range of 1.0 to 3.0 kg). The Tswana chickens were heavier than the small African local fowl reported by Kuit et al (1986) in Central Mali. Egg weight varied from 38 to 60 g. Average flock size was 9 chickens per holding which is similar to the national average reported by MoA (1995). The sex ratio was 1:3.9 (1 cock to about 4 hens) which is lower than the recommended one male to about 15-20 hens in order to optimise the use of the cocks.
The data for production potential (Table 1) of the Tswana chickens are similar to the local chickens studied in Burkina Faso by Say (1987). Small egg size is a characteristic of indigenous tropical fowl breeds and that trait may be simply one of adaptation to the tropical climate (Smith 1974)..
Table 1: Reproduction characteristics of Tswana chickens under extensive
management |
||
Reproduction characters |
Mean ±
SE |
Range |
Age at sexual maturity (months) | ||
Cocks (males) |
7.0 ±
0.55 |
5
- 9 |
Eggs laid per clutch (1st
lay) |
10.0 ±
0.42 |
8
– 12 |
Eggs laid in subsequent clutches |
13.0 ±
0.57 |
10
- 15 |
Eggs laid / year |
34.0 ±
0.36 |
28
- 38 |
Clutches / year |
3.0 ±
0.00 |
- |
Length of lay per clutch (days) |
16.0 ±
0.49 |
15
– 18 |
Incubation period (days) |
21.0 ±
0.00 |
- |
Chicks hatched from first
incubation |
6.0 ±
0.48 |
3
– 8 |
Chicks hatched from
subsequent incubation |
8.0 ± 0.63 |
5
-13 |
Average hatching
rate (%) |
61.8 |
- |
Rearing period (days) |
85.0 ±
3.56 |
80
– 90 |
Recovery period (days) |
19.0 ±
0.64 |
14
- 21 |
|
|
Table 2:
Content of dry matter (DM) and (as % of DM) of ash, fat, crude protein (CP) and
crude fibre (CF) |
|||||
Feed |
DM |
Ash |
Fat |
CP |
CF |
Jugo bean |
91.1 |
4.10 |
17.0 |
15.7 |
5.5 |
Tepary bean |
91.3 |
11.0 |
17.3 |
18.4 |
2.7 |
Maize |
91.0 |
10.3 |
1.78 |
9.75 |
2.3 |
Melon seeds |
93.8 |
8.95 |
28.9 |
12.4 |
26.3 |
Sorghum grains |
90.2 |
13.3 |
1.17 |
11.0 |
3.03 |
Sorghum beer
residue |
44.3 |
14.8 |
7.8 |
9.7 |
8.2 |
Millet |
89.8 |
9.90 |
1.17 |
6.5 |
8.9 |
Tswana water
melon fruit |
5.17 |
11.3 |
28.9 |
11.2 |
8.1 |
Sorghum milo |
93.1 |
2.78 |
ND |
11.1 |
6.5 |
Maize bran |
93.3 |
3.05 |
10.7 |
10.1 |
15.5 |
ND = Not done |
|
|
|
|
|
Tables 3 gives the mineral content of some of the feeds.
Table 3: Major mineral levels of some feeds used for scavenging chickens (on % dry matter basis) |
||||
Feed |
Ca |
Mg |
P |
K |
Jugo bean |
0.014 |
0.14 |
0.21 |
1.3 |
Tepary bean |
0.38 |
0.01 |
0.28 |
1.16 |
Maize |
0.09 |
0.14 |
0.24 |
0.62 |
Melon seeds |
0.22 |
0.24 |
0.40 |
0.64 |
Sorghum grains |
1.76 |
0.25 |
0.33 |
0.42 |
Sorghum beer residue |
0.01 |
0.03 |
0.22 |
0.08 |
Millet |
0.02 |
0.15 |
0.32 |
0.44 |
Tswana water melon fruit |
0.21 |
0.19 |
0.15 |
3.30 |
Sorghum milo |
0.05 |
0.21 |
0.47 |
0.16 |
Maize bran |
0.07 |
0.28 |
0.53 |
0.35 |
Melon seeds contain relatively high levels of iron, zinc and manganese (Table 4) while sorghum beer residues (moroko) also have a high iron content.
Table 4: Trace
mineral composition of some feeds used for scavenging chickens (in parts per million on
dry matter basis ) |
||||
Feed |
Cu |
Fe |
Mn |
Zn |
Jugo bean |
16.0 |
41.9 |
15.4 |
37.7 |
Tepary bean |
20.0 |
83.9 |
30.8 |
42.1 |
Maize |
9.0 |
32.0 |
9.8 |
47.8 |
Melon seeds |
21.0 |
817 |
37.1 |
40.8 |
Sorghum grains |
10.0 |
243 |
60.8 |
37.3 |
Sorghum beer residue |
10.0 |
574 |
8.4 |
22.4 |
Millet |
19.0 |
88.3 |
16.1 |
31.1 |
Tswana water melon fruit |
14.0 |
122 |
19.6 |
73.6 |
Sorghum milo |
7.0 |
202 |
34.5 |
67.0 |
Maize bran |
14.0 |
38.0 |
36.5 |
116.0 |
Average composition of the soils analysed was pH 7, K 1 m-equiv/100g soil , Na (below detectable level), Ca 5.67 m-equiv/100g soil, Mg 2 m-equiv/100g soil, C 1 % of soil by weight, P 8.21 ppm and cation exchange capacity of 3.8 m-equiv/100g soil . Scavenging chickens peck the top soil to supplement the minerals they obtain from feeds. The soil samples from the study areas are low in carbon, sodium and potassium. The small stones or hard particles (grit) obtained from pecking the soil aid the chickens in grinding ingested seeds and grains.
Small- holder farmers involved in commercial broiler production use concrete and corrugated iron sheets in construction of all the broiler farm structures within the study area with absolutely none using locally available material such as mud and thatch. However, the structures were properly constructed and thus allowed for adequate ventilation which is important in all phases of broiler production for it allows for air renewal, supply of oxygen and removal of products of metabolism such as ammonia and carbon dioxide. Broiler house building costs ranged from 8 to 12 Pulas (Botswana currency) per m².
The results summarised in Table 5 show that the
farmers are faced with limitations in regard to stocking density and this is directly
dictated by the size of the farm, total housing area and partitioning of the houses. Production capacities were low owing to
the fact that the country depends on the importation of broiler stock and chicken feed
from neighbouring South Africa and Zimbabwe. Results from the survey show usage of a variety of heat sources for brooding
within the study area, ranging from wood, charcoal, gas heaters, electric brooders and
charcoal to infra red light. Chick behaviour
was used as a guide to the correct combination of temperatures.
Table 5: Characteristics of broiler farms surveyed |
|
Items |
Frequency,% |
Number of poultry
buildings |
|
1 – 2 |
52 |
3 – 4 |
20 |
5 – 6 |
16 |
7 – 8 |
12 |
Total housing area in
m² |
|
Less than 100 |
20 |
101 – 200 |
32 |
201 – 300 |
8 |
301 – 400 |
- |
401 – 500 |
8 |
501 – 600 |
8 |
601 – 700 |
4 |
701 – 800 |
- |
801 – 900 |
4 |
901 – 1000 |
16 |
Stocking capacity |
|
1 – 1000 |
40 |
1001 – 2000 |
8 |
2001 – 3000 |
8 |
3001 – 4000 |
4 |
4001 – 5000 |
- |
5001 – 6000 |
8 |
6001 – 7000 |
- |
7001 – 8000 |
- |
8000 – 9000 |
- |
9001 – 10000 |
32 |
Number of houses
partitioned/farm |
|
1 – 2 |
52 |
3 – 4 |
20 |
5 – 6 |
16 |
Commercial strains
used |
|
Ross hybrid |
40 |
Indian River |
4 |
Indian River & Ross |
- |
Cobb |
20 |
Cobb & Ross |
32 |
Cobb & Indian Ross |
4 |
The strains of broilers included Ross hybrid, Cobb and Indian River
with as many as 40% of the farms raising Ross hybrids owing to the ease of acquisition and
availability in the market of this strain as compared to others. The stocking
rate commonly used is 10 birds per m². It is expected that on average a bird will
consume 4kg of feed from day old to slaughter weight and
that 30% of this will be broiler starter, with the remaining 70% being finisher
mash, the change in feed type being made in the 4th
week.
Feed was provided ad libitum in all instances with the aim of maximising feed consumption. Table 6 reveals that different chicken feeds were provided for different age categories as constituted by the difference in protein and calcium content and their requirements at the different stages of growth.
Table 6:
Feeding and management of broiler farms |
||
Broiler feed |
Number of farms |
% frequency |
Starter mash |
|
|
Day 1 – 3 weeks |
11 |
44 |
Day 1 – 4 weeks |
14 |
56 |
Broiler finisher |
|
|
3 weeks – 6 weeks |
3 |
12 |
3 weeks – 7 weeks |
6 |
24 |
3 weeks – 8 weeks |
2 |
8 |
4 weeks – 6 weeks |
7 |
28 |
4 weeks – 7 weeks |
4 |
16 |
4 weeks – 8 weeks |
3 |
12 |
Stress pack usage |
|
|
Administered |
15 |
60 |
Not used |
10 |
40 |
Say (1987) emphasised disease prevention through regular vaccination and avoidance of stressful conditions rather than curative intervention, in order to minimise economic losses. However, the data in Table 7 shows that 24% of the respondent farmers did not vaccinate at all and, consequently, disease outbreaks were experienced in 56% of the farms. However, it is necessary to state that 32% provided some form of medication and 76% vaccinated their flock against Newcastle disease and/or Gumboro. Only 24% of farmers applied medication mainly as oxytetracycline.
Table 7: Health management |
|
Items |
Frequency, % |
Type of
vaccine administered |
|
Gumboro &
Newcastle disease |
60 |
Newcastle
disease only |
12 |
Gumboro only |
4 |
No
vaccination |
24 |
Medication |
|
Oxytetracycline |
24 |
Aloe extracts |
8 |
None |
68 |
Cleaning
of broiler houses |
|
Water and detergent |
16 |
Water,
detergent and disinfectant |
68 |
Fumigation of
broiler units |
16 |
Diseases |
|
Experienced
outbreaks |
56 |
No outbreak |
44 |
The results in Table 7 also highlight the fact that the broiler houses were
scrupulously cleaned and disinfected after each cycle/batch and allowed to dry before
fresh litter was laid down. Wood shavings
were used for the deep litter in all farms.
The
information obtained in this study shows
that 44% of the respondent farmers have very unstable marketing arrangements. They experienced marketing problems thus they
practised door to door and direct marketing of broiler meat to consumers. The data
in Table 8 shows lack of capital investment
in mechanised feeders, drinkers and
processing equipment and that 72% of the farmers employed manual labour in meat processing
activities. There would appear to be a need for organised
market outlets of local broiler products,
since there is a huge deficit of broiler product requirement which is currently met by
importation from the Republic of South Africa.
Table 8: Broiler meat processing and marketing |
|
Items |
Frequency, % |
Broiler sales |
|
Live birds |
8 |
Dressed |
28 |
Live birds
and dressed |
64 |
Dressing
method |
|
Manual |
72 |
Mechanical |
28 |
Packaging |
|
Plastic bags |
88 |
Disposable trays and/cartoons |
12 |
From Table 9, it can be seen that the major costs are for feed, representing an average of about 60% of the total costs. In the calculation of gross margin, casual labour was not included although it forms part of the variable costs. The reason for this is that no proper records were kept. While this might overstate the gross margin, it would not overstate the net farm income or profit because an estimate of labour costs was been included in the fixed costs.
Table 9: Cost-benefit analysis of a small scale broiler
production |
|
Items |
Pula |
Sales revenue |
4365 |
Net farm income |
1530 |
NB: 1 Pula (P1)
Botswana’s currency is approximately equivalent to 0.20 US$. |
The labour cost was estimated using the hourly rate obtained from the minimum wage paid by government. It was felt that this would approximate the hourly rate of the farmers involved in the small-scale poultry production since they have similar educational levels as the labourers in government. It was then assumed that the farmers spend approximately four hours each day in broiler production. After obtaining the daily rate, this was then multiplied by the number of days of the production cycle to arrive at the total labour cost. While this estimate might not be precise, it is better than assuming that the labour cost is zero, since the labour does not have zero opportunity cost. Both the gross margin and the net farm income are positive indicating that broiler production is a profitable undertaking for small holders.
It is recommended that in order to farmers to increase their total profits they need to increase the size of their operation because this will spread the fixed costs over a larger number of birds.
This study shows that village poultry production serves as source of protein to many rural households, since the farmers often slaughter the chickens for home consumption. Scavenging poultry obtain some of their nutrient requirements from the local supplementary feeds provided by the farmers. Also scavenging chickens obtain some minerals through pecking of top soils.
Small-scale broiler farming is on the increase in the Southern Region of Botswana because the majority of the farmers interviewed (75%) started production in the last five years. Production capacity ranged from a few hundreds to 10,000 broiler chickens. One of the major constraints faced by respondent broiler farmers was capital.
This study shows that broiler production is a good alternative for small-holders which can help to alleviate poverty and generate income for the families.
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