Prevalence of ecto and endo parasites of chickens in some villages in Taraba state, North-Eastern Nigeria

Fufa Ido Gimba, Shola David Ola-Fadunsin¹, Donea Abdurazak Abdullah², Mohammed Konto³, Bunsheya Ba’abe Daudu and Dauda Abubakar⁴

Avian Influenza Control Project, Animal Health Component Desk office, Taraba State Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Jalingo, Taraba State, Nigeria
fufagimba@yahoo.com
¹ Department of Veterinary Parasitology and Entomology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Ilorin, Kwara State, Nigeria
² Department of Animal production/ Northern Technical University Mosul, Iraq
³ Department of Veterinary Parasitology and Entomology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Maiduguri, Borno State, Nigeria
⁴ Department of Veterinary Services, Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Jalingo, Taraba State, Nigeria

Abstract

A study was conducted to determine the prevalence of ecto- and endo parasites of local village chicken between the months of November 2016 to June 2017 in the 16 Local Government Areas of Taraba State, northeastern Nigeria. Seven hundred and five (705) chickens were examined for ecto and endo parasites infestations using microscope and method adopted by Soulsby (1982). Our result showed that 605 (85.8%) of the 705 chickens sampled were infested with single, double or triple ectoparasites (Lice, Fleas and Mites). Our results revealed that single infection with Lice, Fleas and Mites recorded 110 (15.6%), 88 (12.5%) and 84 (11.9%) of sampled birds respectively. Similarly, double infection with lice/mite, lice/fleas and fleas/mites respectively occurred in 101 (14.3%), 90 (13.8%) and 71 (10.1%) of the birds sampled. Sixty one (8.7%) were found to be co-infested with lice, fleas and mites. Four hundred and eighty-four 68 (68.7%) of the 705 sampled chickens were found to be infested with endoparasites. Nematodes occurred in 300 (42.6%) of the sample birds while protozoa and cestodes were respectively found in 93 (13.2%) and 91(12.9%). Sustainable methods of ecto and endo parasites control is necessary, so as to enhance village chicken production and eventually improve the economy of the rural poor and the indigent.

Keyword: avian, lice, mites, nematodes, protozoa, Taraba State

Introduction

Poultry is one of the most intensively produced specie among all domesticated species and among the most established and profit making animal production business (Obiora 1992). Poultry production occupies an important position in providing animal proteins to the population and largely serves a significant part in the nation economy ( Nnadi and George 2010). Village chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus) is the major species in the rural poultry sub-sector in Africa (Kitalyi 1988; FAO 2007). The traditional method of keeping village chicken has been the backyard method in which the birds are allowed to scavenge for food during the day time, with housing provided during the night for the semi-intensive and free-range system (Ramlah and Shukor 1987). In Nigeria, there are about 72.4 million chickens ( FAO 2006). Poultry in general are also utilized for socio-cultural devotions (Thekisoe et al 2004) and they possess limited religious and ethnic/social prohibitions (Mafu and Masika 2003).

The productions of poultry in parts of Asia and Africa are broadly separated into commercial and village enterprise sectors, each of them having its distinctiveness ( Nnadi and George 2010). Village chicken productions are faced with several limiting factors which include poor management, malnutrition and the lack of bio-security among others. Losses have also been ascribed to poor housing or no housing and little or no Veterinary services. Chicken production in the village is also hampered by ecto and endo parasites (Nnadi and George 2010). Commonly, poultry ectoparasites are mites, gnats, fleas, lice and sometime ticks, while the endo parasites include the helminths and protozoa like Eimeria among others (Nnadozie 1996; Nnadi and George 2010). Parasitic infestations manifest in late maturity, reduced egg output, emaciation, anemia and death (Irungu et al 2004; Kaufman et al 2007). In In addition, ectoparasites like mites and ticks are vectors of some diseases that can infect poultry, such as fowl pox, pastuerellosis, Newcastle disease, and perhaps Chlamydia (Russel and Springer 1978; Denmark and Cromroy 2006). Furthermore, Heterakis gallinarum worm infestation has been linked with turkey and chicken Histomonas meleagridis transmission (Russel and Springer 1978; Denmark and Cromroy 2006).

Studies have reported the occurrence and prevalence of ecto and endo parasites in village chickens in many countries including Nigeria with variable species of endo-parasites recognized (Permin et al 1997; Irungu et al 2004; Muhairwa et al 2007; Phiri et al 2007; Nnadi and George 2010; Junaidu et al 2014). Studies have revealed that the prevalence of parasitism in village chickens is almost close to 100%; and in many situations concurrent infections with two or more parasites are common in birds (Permin et al 1997) Researchers like Muhairwa et al (2007) and Phiri et al (2007) have recorded prevalence of 52 % in Tanzania and Zambia, respectively. In Nigeria a prevalence of 71.3% was recorded in the Southeastern part of Nigeria (Nnadi and George 2010) and in Bauchi state. Similarly some researchers recorded prevalence of 87.8% for helminth infection (Yoriyo et al 2008). Recent studies reported a helminth prevalence of 81.5% in Kaduna state northwest Nigeria (Junaidu et al 2014). There is paucity of information on the current prevalence of ecto and endo parasites in village chickens in Taraba state, Northeastern Nigeria. Hence, this study was conducted to determine the ecto and endo parasites prevalence in village chickens in Taraba State in Northeastern Nigeria.

Materials and method

The study area

Taraba State is situated in the North-eastern geo-political region of Nigeria and occupies a land mass of about 56,282 square kilometers. It is located between latitude 8° 00'N and longitude 10° 30'E with varied elevation of 2,419 meters above sea level in Chabbal Wade on the Mambilla plateau (average;1800 meters) and other lowland areas of between 200-350 meters above sea level. The state has 16 local government areas (LGA). Taraba State has a population of 2,300,736 (National Bureau of Statistics 2016). The state has a mean annual rainfall ranging from 103.8 cm to 156.9 cm and the average annual temperature ranges between 23.4 °C to 33.7 °C. It records a mean relative humidity of between 48.9 % and 63.1 %. The major occupation of the people of Taraba state is Agriculture, which includes livestock and crop production. Backyard poultry keeping is very common in the state as almost every household has a backyard poultry (of chickens majorly) (National Bureau of Statistics 2016).

Sample collection

Samples were collected from all the 16 LGA of the State, from November 2016 to June 2017. Three villages were randomly selected for sampling in each LGA and in each of the villages, 15 chicken samples were randomly collected irrespective of their sexes. However, for Sardauna LGA only two villages were sampled due to the nature and topography of the area. Hence the total number of sampled was 47 and the total number of chicken sampled was 705. The sampling was done early in the morning in each of the villages selected. Each chicken to be sample was first observed for external parasites before collection of fecal sample.

Examination and identification of ectoparasites

Examination for ectoparasites was done by thorough inspection of the entire body of each sampled chicken to remove the ectoparasites. For the purpose of easy dislodgment of the ectoparasites, each sampled bird was dusted with Sevin® powder (1-napthyl-N-methyl carbarmate), placed on a white sheet of paper and vigorously robbed and ruffled and with the use of a fine blunt toothed brush after removing the ectoparasites. All the materials falling on the paper were then preserved in 70% ethanol with 5% glycerin in a bijou bottle. The chickens observed with ecto parasites were noted and the type of parasite recorded. In the lab, each parasite type was fixed in a microscopic slide and examined according to the method of Soulsby (1982).

Fecal collection and analyses for helminth eggs and coccidian oocysts

Fresh fecal samples were also collected from each chicken sampled. The fecal samples were collected through the chicken cloaca manually with hand covered with disposable gloves where possible or with spatula in some cases. All the fecal samples collected were put in sample bottles containing 10% formalin, for preservation and labelled stored in a fridge at 4°C before laboratory analyses. All the fecal samples collected from each chicken were matched with their corresponding record of the ectoparasites for each sampled chicken. Modified quantitative McMaster (floatation) method was employed for the analysis of coccidial oocysts, nematode and cestode eggs, (MAFF 1986) The parasites eggs were identified according to classification keys developed by Soulsby (1982) and all the identified eggs were documented.

Data analysis

Results were entered in Microsoft office Excel version 2014. Data was analyzed using descriptive statistics that was conducted using percentages (%) and tabulations.

Result

Prevalence of Ectoparasites

The results of this investigation revealed that out of a total of seven hundred and five chicken sampled, six hundred and five (85.8 %) were infested with single, double or triple infestations with ectoparasites (Lice, Fleas and Mites). Single infestation with lice had the highest number of the positive samples; one hundred and ten (15.6%), which was followed by mites; eighty eight (12.5%) and the least was seen in fleas; eighty four (11.9%). For the double ectoparasites infestations, infestation with lice/mite was the highest; one hundred and one (14.3%), followed by lice/fleas ninety (12.8%) and the least was seen in fleas/mites; seventy one (10.1%). Triple infestations (lice, fleas and mite) occurred in; sixty one (8.7%) of the birds sampled. Comparing between the LGAs showed that Kurmi LGA had the highest prevalence of ectoparasites; forty four (97.8%), followed by Zing LGA; forty two (93.3%) and the least was seen in Ardo Kola and Wukari LGA thirty five (77.8%) (Table 1).

Prevalence of endoparasites

This study recorded six nematodes species, three cestodes species and only Eimeria specie for protozoa in our investigation. Our result showed that out of the total 705 chickens sampled, three hundred and five (43.3%) chickens were positive for endoparasites. Also, nematodes parasite was the highest prevalence of 42.6% which was followed by the protozoa which had a prevalence of 13.2% and the least was seen with cestodes which had a prevalence of 12.9%. For the nematodes, the highest prevalence was seen with Ascaridia galli (16.7%) and the specific prevalence of Ascaridia galli out of the entire positive sample was 38.7%. The least prevalence for nematodes was seen in Prosthogonimus species (2.9%) and the specific prevalence of Prosthogonimus species out of the entire positive sample was 38.7%. Raillietina spp had the highest prevalence among the cestodes 5.9% and the specific prevalence of Raillietina spp out of the entire positive sample was 13.8%. The least prevalence of cestodes was seen in Amaebotaenia sphenoides (3.1%) and the specific prevalence of Amaebotaenia sphenoides out of the entire positive samples was 7.2%.Eimeria species was the only protozoa infection found in this study and it had a prevalence of 13.2% and the specific prevalence of Eimeria species out of the entire positive sample was 19.2% (Table 2).

Discussion

Our result showed a diverse range of parasitic infestations among village chickens in the study area. Studies conducted by researchers both within and abroad have reported wide range of parasitic infections among village chickens (Yoriyo et al 2008; Nnadi and George 2010; Marizvikuru and Patrick 2011; Jegede et al 2015). Ectoparasites had higher prevalence in this study (85.8%), than endoparasite (68.7%) in this study. Lice recorded the highest prevalence (15.6%) among the ectoparasites. Other studies in Nigeria and abroad have reported similar result of higher prevalence of lice as compared to other ectoparasites in village chickens (Adene and Dipeolu 1975; Fabiyi 1988; Saidu et al 1994; Nnadozie 1996; Nnadi and George 2010; Malann et al 2016). The fact that lice are highly adapted and abundant in hot and humid areas such as Nigeria ( Fabiyi 1988) could be the reason for the relatively higher prevalence recorded, compared to the other ectoparasites. Mites recorded the second highest prevalence in this study. This is not far-fetched as mite is considered as one of the common ectoparasites of village chicken (Adene and Dipeolu 1975; Saidu et al 1994). This finding, however differs from that of Nnadi and George (2010) who showed in their study that mites were the least among the ectoparasites encountered. This difference may, be due to differences in the weather and ecological settings of the study area, sample size and area covered. The group of the parasites with the least prevalence (11.9%) was fleas. This result is in agreement with Saiduet al(1994) who revealed that fleas were the least occurring ectoparasites. However, our result does not agree with Nnadi and George (2010) who showed that fleas recorded the second highest prevalence in their study. On the other hand Adene and Dipeolu (1975)in their much earlier survey of ectoparasites and blood parasites over four decades ago encountered no fleas in village chickens in Western Nigeria. The difference in our findings with Adene and Dipeolu (1975) could possibly be as a result of differences in study area and time of sampling. Four decades is enough time for new genera of parasites to emerge or be introduced into an area.

In all the villages sampled, no tick sample was seen throughout the study period. This is not surprising as many other similar studies also recorded no ticks found in village chicken (Ikeme 1972; Adene and Dipeolu 1975; Nnadozie 1996; Nnadi and George 2010). Generally ectoparasites (lice, mites, fleas and ticks) cause discomfort anemia and loss of feathers in chicken. They also cause immune depression and reduce productivity, these however depend largely on the level of parasites infestation (Soulsby 1986; Nnadi and George 2010). High parasites infestation can also lead to death of the chicken as a result of anemia and immune depression which could allow secondary bacterial infection in the affected chicken. The effect of ectoparasites as can be seen in this study revealed the economic significance in village chickens and other birds and invariably in their nation’s economy as chicken contribute largely to the economy of the nation in terms of meat and egg production.

Our findings of wide range of gastro-intestinal parasite species in village chickens in Taraba state is in agreement with other studies carried out by researchers within and outside the country. For example in Nigeria studies have revealed wide range of gastro-intestinal parasites species in the village chickens (Fabiyi 1972; Yoriyo et al 2008; Nnadi and George 2010). Outside Nigeria many studies have demonstrated wide range of gastro-intestinal parasites species in village chickens and ducks (Permin et al 1997; Poulsen et al 2000; Permin et al 2002; Muhairwaet al 2007; Marizvikuru and Patrick 2011). The wide range of gastro-intestinal parasites found in the village chicken could be as a result of the scavenging nature of these birds exposing them to different types of parasites (Marizvikuru and Patrick 2011) Also the village chickens are less attended to by the veterinarian as the owners hardly treat or vaccinate them. Our result revealed that out of the total 705 chickens sample 484 (68.7%) chickens were positive for endoparasites infection, this result agree with other researchers who also recorded high prevalence of these parasites in village chicken (Yoriyo et al 2008; Nnadi and George 2010). Even though there is little differences in the percentage of the prevalence between our work with those reported as mention but the prevalence in our work and those reported remain high. The little variation in the prevalence of our work with those reported could be as a result of differences in study area and also number of samples involved in the investigation, as wider sampling and larger number of sampling as seen in our work gives more accurate estimate than a representative sample for prevalence analysis. Also our result revealed that nematodes parasites recorded the highest prevalence (42.6 %) followed by the protozoa parasites (13.2 %) and the least was seen in the cestodes parasites (12.9 %). Nnadi and George (2010) and Marizvikuru and Patrick (2011) in their separate works recorded high prevalence of nematodes, this is an indication that nematodes are the commonest gastro-intestinal parasites found in village chickens. The result obtained for protozoa (coccidia) in this work differs with that obtained by Nnadi and George (2010) who found that the prevalence of the nematodes was the same as that of the protozoa. The differences in the prevalence could be as a result of sampling season as sporulation of coccidian oocyst occurs more in wet and warmer weather (environment). It could be that their sampling time was during the wet season or in a wet environment thereby exacerbating the prevalence. Our sampling was not concentrated in a specific area but rather covers a larger area and spanning both dry and wet season. Cestodes recorded the least prevalence in this work. This is in agreement with the study of Marizvikuru and Patrick (2011) who also found cestodes parasites to be the least in prevalence as compared to other gastro-intestinal parasites found in village chickens. Low cestodes prevalence could be an indication that cestodes are not common in this environment or that the intermediate hosts required for cestodes transmission are rare in the environment thereby limiting parasites from thriving.

No trematode was recorded in the samples analyzed in this work. Studies have shown that trematodes are rare parasites due to the fact that quite a number of them, and poultry tapeworms need a wide range of intermediate hosts which possibly may not be obtainable in many environments, it is also possible that the prevailing environmental settings might not warrant for intermediate host survival (Junker and Boomker 2007; Abdelgader et al 2008) consequently, leading to the incomplete life cycle of the parasites found. Ascaridia galli recorded the highest prevalence among the nematode parasite. This is in agreement with other works such as those conducted by Marizvikuru and Patrick (2011) and (Ngongeh et al 2014) who reported high prevalence of Ascaridia galli. It is possible that Ascaridia galli is one of the most common nematodes of village chicken. The high prevalence of Ascaridia galli in village chicken may be associated to the fact that the transmission of the helminth is done directly without an intermediate host. Endoparasites strangely lowers chicken feed efficiency utilization, thereby reducing the size of the flocks (Magwisha et al 2002; University of Reading 2007) which in turn lower the income generation of the rural households and nutritional status thus upsetting their incomes.

Conclusions

• Our investigation revealed high prevalence of both ecto and endoparasites among village chickens in Taraba state, Northeastern Nigeria within the investigation time.
  
  
• The result of this investigation also revealed that chickens within the sampled area are largely affected by these parasites which reduce their protein and economic value.
  
  
• Based on the known pathologic effects of these parasites, the result of this study highlights both the eminent and potential impacts of these parasites to the overall village chicken production.

Acknowledgment

We want to thank the staff of the Veterinary Hospital Jalingo, Department of Veterinary services Taraba state Ministry of Agriculture Jalingo and the Laboratory staff of the Department of Veterinary Parasitology and Entomology faculty of Veterinary Medicine University of Maiduguri for their effort in sample collection and analysis.

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Received 17 February 2019; Accepted 28 February 2019; Published 1 April 2019

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