Effect of ground mature prosopis (Prosopis juliflora) pods inclusion in layer diets on performance of improved indigenous chicken in Kenya

A J Manhique¹, A M King’ori and A M Wachira²

Agriculture Division, Instituto Superior Politécnico de Gaza, P.O. Box 01, Chókwè, Mozambique
manhiqueantonio@gmail.com
¹ Department of Animal Sciences, Egerton University, P.O. Box 536-20115, Egerton, Kenya
² Poultry Unit -Non-Ruminant Research Institute (NRI), Kenya Agricultural & Livestock Research Organization, P.O. Box 25-Naivasha, Kenya

Abstract

Sixty four KALRO improved indigenous chicken (IC) layers, 43 weeks of age, were used in this study conducted at the Non-Ruminant Research Institute (NRI)-Naivasha Centre, Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization. The study was to evaluate the performance of KALRO improved Indigenous Chicken (IC) layers (64) offered diets containing ground mature Prosopis pods (GPJP) for a period of eight weeks.

A Completely Randomized Design (CRD) was used with four (4) dietary treatments: PP0, PP10, PP20 and PP30 levels of GPJP inclusion in total diet. Sixteen hens weighing an average of 1.87±0.49 kg live weight were each allocated to a battery cage. The diets were formulated to be iso -nitrogenous, (16 % Crude Protein - CP) and iso-caloric, (12.8 KJ/Kg) metabolized energy (ME). The eggs were collected twice daily.  Data on feed Intake (FI), Egg Production (EP) were recorded daily and egg quality parameters (egg weight, egg mass, egg shell weight and thickness, albumen weight and height, egg yolk weight and colour) were analyzed twice per week on 6 eggs randomly sampled per treatment. Economic value was calculated and compared among the treatments using the prevailing cost of inputs and prices of products (eggs).

Results indicated not difference in feed intake. Egg production was similar for hens offered PP0 and PP10 but was higher than in hens offered PP20 and PP30. Egg weight was similar for hens offered PP0 and PP30 but was higher than for hens offered PP10 and PP20. Egg height, width, shape index and egg eggshell weights were similar for all diets. Shell thickness was different in hens offered PP30 from PP0 and PP10 but similar in hens on PP20. Shell ratio was higher in hens on PP20 than PP0 but similar in hens on PP10 and PP30. Yolk weight, height, diameter, yolk index and ratio, albumen weight, height, yolk: albumen ratio, and Haugh unit were not influenced by inclusion of GPJP in all the treatments. Yolk colour was deep yellow (higher) in hens on PP30 followed by hens on PP20 while hens on PP0 and PP10 were similar. In conclusion, the inclusion of GPJP at 10% improved egg production without affecting egg quality and increased the profit of egg production.

Key words: egg production, egg quality, feed formulation, pods

Introduction

Generally, the demand for food increases as human population increases. Consequently, there are efforts geared towards increasing animal production, especially poultry in order to meet the critical animal protein needed by Africa’s growing human population (Gueye, 2000). Indigenous chicken (IC) (Gallus domesticus) contributes a significant amount of protein to the livelihood of rural and urban communities. Indigenous chicken are about 75% of the poultry population in Kenya (Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries  Development, 2004) and contribute about 46 and 58% of  eggs and meat  from poultry respectively (Mukherjee, 1992; King'ori et al 2010). However, the productivity of IC is low due to the extensive system of production and inadequate feeds all year round despite their tolerance to the harsh environment. The smallholder farmers prefer this low input system because of the high cost of commercial feeds required under intensive systems.

One way of alleviating inadequate and/or high cost of feeds for IC is to use locally available feed resources such as Prosopis (Prosopis juliflora) pods. Prosopis is a leguminous tree native to the South and Central Americas and distributed around the dry regions of the world over the past 200 years (Choge et al 2007). In Kenya, the first documented introduction of Prosopis, from Brazil and Hawaii was in 1973 for rehabilitation of quarries near Mombasa and has since become the most common naturalized species in the country. It has spread widely outside the designated plantation areas. The pods which are high in sugars, carbohydrates and protein have been used as a human source of food and feed  for livestock in Africa (Choge et al 2007).

In this study, ground mature Prosopis pods were used to formulate four layer diets to evaluate the effects of inclusion on the performance of KALRO improved indigenous chickens.

Materials and methods

Experiment location

The experiment was carried out at the Poultry Unit, Non-Ruminant Research Institute (NRI) Centre at Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization (KALRO), Naivasha.  The Institute is located at Naivasha sub- County, Nakuru County. It is about 100 km West of the capital Nairobi along the Nairobi-Nakuru highway. The Research Centre is at about 1,700 m above sea level. The average annual rainfall is 1,100 mm with bimodal peaks recorded from March- May and October-December. Minimum temperature  was 8° C in July and August, the maximum temperature  was 25° C in January and February (Herrero et al 2010).

Experimental Design

Sixty-four hens (KALRO-improved indigenous chickens) aged 43 weeks and weighing 1.87±0.49 kg live weight (average per treatment) were assigned to four treatments in a Completely Randomized Design (CRD. Each treatment had four hens and was replicated four times. Environmental temperature and relative humidity were 17-25^oC and 60-85% respectively. The hens were weighed and kept individually in battery cages (45x45x40 cm) separated by an empty cage.  The battery house received natural light (12 hours) all day. The cages were equipped with metal feeders fixed along the front length of the cages with the drinking water channel located at the back of the cage.

Experimental diets

Dietary ingredients for the study included ground white maize, pollard, soybean meal, ground fish meal (omena), sunflower meal, bone meal and Ground mature Prosospis juliflora Pods (GPJP) collected from Baringo County. Hens were offered feed and water ad libitum throughout the experimental period (43 to 51 weeks of age). The hens were given a 7 days adaptation period to the diets followed by the feeding trial to evaluate the performance and economics. GPJP was included at 0, 10, 20 and 30% levels of total diet ingredients as follows:

• Treatment 1- diet formulated as a commercial layer diet without GPJP (PP0-0%)

• Treatment 2- diet formulated as a commercial layer diet + 10% of GPJP (PP10-10%)

• Treatment 3- diet formulated as a commercial layer diet + 20% of GPJP (PP20-20%)

• Treatment 4- diet formulated as a commercial layer diet + 30% of GPJP (PP30-30%)

Data Collection and measurements

Productive performance

The production performance data was collected daily and evaluated weekly except for the hen weight gain, which was evaluated twice throughout the experimental period.  Weight gain per hen was calculated as the difference between the final and initial weight of the hens with an electronic weighing balance with a 0.5 g accuracy; Feed intake as the difference between feed offered and leftovers (refusal) after 24 hours; Feed conversion ratio (FCR) was calculated as feed intake (g) divided by average egg weight (g) during each week);   Egg production (eggs collected twice per day) and feed intake per treatment were recorded daily. Egg quality was analysed using six eggs randomly sampled (three eggs twice per week) from each treatment. Eggs were weighed weekly during the 8 week experimental period. Egg mass was calculated as the number of eggs multiplied by egg weight per treatment. Eggs were weighed using an electronic balance (0.01g minimum weight). The formulae (1, 2, 3, 4 and 5) show the equations used to calculate the production performance:

(1)   Average weight gain (AWG) per hen (g) = Final body weight (g) - Initial body weight (g)

Egg quality (egg weight, shell weight, egg height, egg width, shell thickness, yolk colour, and Haugh unit) was analysed using electronic weighing balance with 0.01 g accuracy and digital vernier calliper ruler with 0.01 mm accuracy. Egg quality can be considered as both external egg parameters, focusing on the eggshell qualities while internal egg quality focus on the egg content. Egg quality is defined as the characteristics of an egg which influences the acceptability or preference for egg by the consumer. These characteristics were (egg quality) divided into two groups: external and internal quality.

External egg quality

External egg quality is determined by the shell colour, thickness and the shape. Egg height measured from the bottom to the top of the egg (mm); egg width was measured at the centre of the egg or equator (mm; (1) shape index was calculated as a measurement of width per length multiplied by 100; eggshell weight using a weigh balance ; (2) eggshell thickness measured from six pieces of the eggshell and (3) eggshell ratio as a result of eggshell weight divided by egg weight multiplied by 100  as shown by the formulae 1, 2 and 3 .

Internal egg quality

The internal quality characteristics of the egg were determined by composition and freshness of egg white (albumen) and yolk. Yolk and albumen weight were measured after separation through a funnel; yolk height, yolk diameter and albumen height using digital vernier calliper ruler to the nearest 0.01 mm; albumen weight was calculated as  the difference between egg weight less yolk weight plus egg shell weight; yolk ratio was calculated as yolk weight per egg weight multiplied by 100  (1); yolk index as  yolk height per yolk diameter multiplied by 100  (2); yolk: albumen ratio as a yolk weight per albumen weight multiplied by 100 ; Haugh unit for freshness or viscosity measurement was calculated  by albumen height and average egg weight according to Haugh (1937) and yolk colour was determined by comparing the colour of properly mixed yolk sample placed on white paper with the colour strips of Roche Yolk fan measurement, which consisted of 1-15 strips ranging from pale (1) to orange yellow colour (15).

Chemical analysis

All ingredients and feed samples collected were subjected to proximate analysis. Samples were ground using a 1-mm screen in grinder for analyses according to the procedures  of  Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC, 1990): DM, Crude Protein (CP)  as N x 6.25 result as CP content on feed; Gross Energy (GE) using bob- calorimeter and metabolized energy (determined by difference between gross energy  of the feed and energy content  in hen faeces collected); Ether Extract (EE), Ash and Crude fiber (CF) through “Anikom 200 fiber analyzer”. Condensed tannins were analysed using the method described by Pearson (1976). Minerals, Ca, P, Na, K, Fe Cu, Zn, were determined using atomic absorption spectrophotometer for calcium, total phosphorus content by SP75 UV spectrophotometer, sodium and potassium by flame photometer.

Statistical analysis

Statistical Analyses were performed using Statistical Analysis System (SAS) software version 9. Prior to analysis, data were tested for normality using the Kolmogorov–Smirnov and shapiro tests Statistical Analysis Software (SAS, version 9, 2002). With the exception of yolk colour (used Yolk colour fan), all other data were analyzed using General Linear Model of Analysis of Variance-GLM (ANOVA) to determine differences between treatment means which were deemed significant at 5% level. The differences between means were determined using Tukey method.

Results

Chemical composition of Ground Prosopis pods and experimental diet

The Chemical composition of prosopis pods is shown in Table 1 and the proportion of ingredients in the experimental diets are shown in Table 2. Amino acids methionine and lysine were included according to the manufacturer’s recommendations (0.25% of total diet). Gross energy was determined using a bomb calorimeter.

The experimental diets were formulated to meet the nutrient requirement for IC (King'ori et al 2014). All diets were, iso-caloric and iso-nitrogenous, 12.8MJ/kg ME and 16% CP respectively (Table 2) with crude fibre increasing with increasing prosopis pods  inclusion from 0 to 30%.

*Commercial layers vitamins and minerals containing (g/100g)= Vitamins: A-4500 I.u, D3- 900 IU, E- 8 IU, k3-1 mg, B1-0.7 mg, B2-1.75 mg, B6 - 1.5 mg, B12 - 0.048 mg, Vitamin C- 40.0 mg, Nicotinic acid - 17.5 mg, Pantothenic acid - 4.0 mg, Biotin -0.02 mg, Folic acid - 0.4 mg, Choline Chloride - 140 mg, Caropyll (R+Y) - 13 mg, Minerals: Mn - 48 mg, Fe - 12.8 mg, Zn 14.4 Cu - 1.6 mg, Co - 0.064 mg, Iodine - 0.448 mg, Se-0.04 mg.

Production Performance

The production performance, feed intake, weight gain, feed conversion ratio, egg production, egg weight and egg mass are shown in Table 3.   Inclusion of GPJP in the diets had a negative effect on final live weight (Y= -70.2x+2059, R²=0.93) (Table 3 and Figure 1) but did not affect feed intake. Egg production decreased with increasing inclusion level of GPJP and was similar for hens offered PP0 and PP10 diets, but higher than those offered PP20 and PP30 which PP30 was also similar to PP0 (Table 3, Figure 2).Egg weight was higher for hens offered PP0than PP10, PP20  and similar to PP30. Hens offered PP10 and PP20 diets had similar egg weights.

Figure 1. Effect of proportion of Prosopis pods in the diet on changes in live weight

Egg mass was higher in hens offered PP0 and PP10 than those on PP20 and PP30 diets while hens on PP0 and PP10 diets had similar weight. Feed intake was similar for hens in all treatments but feed conversion ratio was different for hens offered PP0 and PP20 but similar for hens on PP20 and PP30. Hens on PP0 diet were more efficient compared to those on PP20and but similar to hens on PP10 and PP30.

Figure 2. Effect of proportion of Prosopis pods in the diet on egg production

External Quality

External egg quality is related to size, shell quality and shape index which were measured using indirect methods based on egg height, width, shape index and egg eggshell weight as illustrated in Table 4. These parameters were similar except eggshell thickness and eggshell to egg weight ratio. Shell thickness was similar in hens offered PP0 and PP10 but higher in those offered PP20 and PP30. Shell ratio as a measure of the proportion of shell weight to egg weight was similar for hens offered PP10 and PP30 but different from those on PP0 and PP20.

Internal Egg Quality

The internal quality of an egg is determined by the composition of egg white, yolk and possible enclosures (fresh, blood), but also by viscosity or freshness since egg starts to age directly after laying (Niekerk, 2014). The quality is determined by weight, height, diameter, colour and proportion compared to the egg weight. Yolk weight, height, diameter, yolk index and ratio, albumen weight, height, yolk: albumen ratio, and Haugh unit were not influenced by inclusion of GPJP in all treatments except yolk colour which was evidently higher for eggs from hens offered PP30 followed by PP20 while eggs from hens on PP0 and PP10 had a similar yolk colour as the table 5 illustrated. 

Discussion

Productive performance

The level of crude fibre across the treatments was different (Table 2) but did not influence feed intake. Girma et al (2011a) reported lower live weight in broilers on treatments of 20 to 30% GPJP inclusion compared to control (0% of GPJP) which was similar to the present study. The tendency for reduced live weight and rate of egg production observed can be attributed to lower digestibility of prosopis pods compared the treatment PP0 with high level of inclusion of ingredients such as maize, soybean and fish meal.

The differences on egg weight was not clear explained among the treatments in the current study although prosopis pods could be limited in some amino acids such as lysine, methionine and cysteine (Bhatt et al 2011; Odero-Waitituh et al 2015) which were reported by Joly (2009) as factors contributing to reduction on rate of egg production, egg weight and mass. Lower digestibility of prosopis pods due to trypsin inhibitor reported by Del Valle et al (1983) in pods compared to maize and fish meal in control group stands out to nutrients deficiency and leads to low rate of egg production.

Feed intake was similar but different in final live weight and this was in agreement with the results reported by Nigatu (2015) in evaluation of the performance of white leghorn layers fed on a diet  with up to 30% of GPJP. Girma et al (2012) and Silva et al (2002) reported reduced feed intake  as the inclusion of GPJP increased in commercial layers and Japanese quails diets. Their findings are different from the results of this study probably due to the use of improved indigenous hens in this study, which are better adapted to high non-starch polysaccharides (fibre) intake as scavenging chicken. This is also explained by the feed conversion ratio, which was similar for hens offered treatment PP0, PP10 and PP30 despite higher fibre.

Experiments conducted by Kondra et al (1974), to determine the effect of feeding  high (19.6%) or low (7.7%) fibre diet to meat- and egg-type chickens reported a significant increase in weight, size and number of various components of the digestive system with increasing fibre in the diets.. Increase in size of various organs is considered to be an attempt to hold and process a relatively large volume of feed and extract the nutrients more efficiently from the diet despite poultry known by decreasing nutrients digestibility in diet with higher fibre level. Ngeno et al (2014) based on previous cited study concluded that chickens anatomical and physiological adaptation to increase volume of feed of low nutrient density, so that required nutrients can be obtained. This adaptation can maximize nutrients utilization on the diets of low and variable quality and it could be more advanced and complex in indigenous chickens.

Study conducted by Atieno et al (2015) to determine the effect of replacing maize in broiler finisher diets with milled mature Prosopis pods (MMPP) at 0, 10, 20 and 30% levels on performance of broilers (male and female) indicated negative performance in feed intake, FCR, weight and average daily gain when the level of GPJP increased. These authors reported that a level up to 20% of GPJP meal could be included in diets of broilers with no loss of performance. Mirnawati et al (2011) concluded that in broilers, fibre above 6% hinder protein and energy digestibility hence depresses feed intake and enzymatic activity that helps carbohydrate, protein and fat digestion. The facts observed in mentioned study differ in feed intake and FCR may be due to relative tolerance of fibre in improved indigenous chicken layers. Similar result was observed in weight gain since layers adjust the nutrients from catabolism (Joly, 2009) to maintain egg production depressing body weight up to minimum required for maintenance. 

Girma et al (2011b) reported higher income from commercial layers offered diets containing up to 20% prosopis pods.  The same authors reported no effect (0-30% of GPJP inclusion) on body weight gain, egg weight, and FCR. Sila et al (2002) using P.Juliflora flour (0 to 25%)  in quail diet and Speedy (1991) using same flour replacing up to 100% of wheat bran in rations for chickens  reported no effect on feed intake, FCR and egg weight.  Similar results on feed intake were observed in this study except body weight gain decreased on PP20 and PP30 and egg weight was affected negatively with increasing GPJP in the diet PP10 and PP20. FCR was higher in hens offered PP10, PP20 and PP30 while egg weight was higher in hens on PP0, PP10 and PP30 compared to those on PP20.

The low nutrients density in PP10, PP20 and PP30 diets due to increasing crude fibre with increase in GPJP could be the reason for higher FCR compared to hens on diet PP0 which was the control (0% of GPJP).The studies of the cited authors were replacing an ingredient (wheat bran with pods flour) in the diet compared to the current study which was in total diet and Chee (2005) reported low crude fibre (8.7%) on wheat bran than prosopis pods (19.2%)..

Studies published by Girma et al (2011b), 58.0 g; Nigatu (2015), 50.5 g. Joly (2009), reported that bigger hens produce larger eggs than smaller hens and bigger breeders produce larger eggs than smaller breeders. The increases in production with both hen weight and egg size  can be also attributed to the difference in breeds (improved indigenous vs exotic) and hen weight 1.33 ±0.22 and 1.08 ±0.6 kg used by Girma et al (2011b) and (Nigatu, 2015) respectively compared to this study (1.87 ± 0.49 kg). Egg mass was also higher in this experiment than by the cited authors  due to lower egg production and egg weight in their studies.

Egg quality (external and internal)

Girma et al (2011a) reported no influence of GPJP on egg quality parameters except yolk colour which tended to increase with increasing level of GPJP in the diet. Similar results were observed in this study where dietary GPJP of 30% (PP30) resulted in eggs with a similar yolk colour to eggs laid by hens offered diets with 20% GPJP (PP20) which was a deeper yellow colour  than for eggs laid by hens on the control diets (PP0) and PP10% GPJP inclusion in the diets. Nigatu (2015) also reported that 30% of GPJP improved yolk yellow colour than others treatments up to 20%. Yellow yolk colour is determined by animal genetic or xanthophyll (plant pigment with beta-carotene) content in the diet. Beta-carotene in GPJP was reported also by Girma et al (2011a) at 82.35µg/100g level which was responsible for the yellow yolk colour. Dutch State Mines (DSM) Animal Nutrition (2016) reported that deposition of dietary carotenoids in the egg yolk depends on carotenoid molecule and as the content of carotenoid in the feed increases, their concentration in the egg yolk rises. Diet containing 20 and 30% GPJP increased yolk colour in this study.  A 30% of GPJP inclusion in laying chicken diets was recommended as the preferred yolk colour for consumers (Girma et al 2011b).

Shell thickness was higher in eggs for hens offered PP30 compared to PP0 and PP10 but similar to PP20. Nigatu (2015) reported similar results with this study but higher than observed by Girma et al (2011a) due to calcium levels in the diet which were 3.93% in total feed compared to 4.1 and 4.2%  in this study and by Nigatu (2015) respectively. Olgun et al (2013) reported 37 mm of eggshell thickness which was also similar with this study due to the same level of calcium.

In conclusion, inclusion of 30% GPJP in layers diet has no effect on egg quality except egg yolk colour for KALRO improved indigenous chicken hens. Layers offered diets with up to 10% GPJP had a similar performance (egg production, egg mass, feed intake and FCR) to those on the Control diets, except for body weight gain and egg weight which were higher in hens on the control diet. A 10% GPJP inclusion in layer diets will lower cost of production and increase profits.

Acknowledgment

The authors would like to extend sincere thanks to the NICHE/MOZ/150-ISPG project (Nuffic), Egerton University for the financial support and Poultry Unit -Non-Ruminant Research Centre   Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization, Naivasha for their inputs and staff support throughout the research.

References

ADDIN Mendeley Bibliography CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Aoac 1990 Official Methods of Analysis (Volume 1), 1(Volume 1).  AOAC

Atieno O W J 2015 Evaluation of inclusion levels of milled mature pods of prosopis juliflora (Mathenge) in broiler finisher diets (Masters Dissertation, EGERTON UNIVERSITY).

Bhatt S S, Chovatiya S G and Shah A R 2011 Evaluation of raw and hydrothermically processed Prosopis juliflora seed meal as supplementary feed for the growth of Labeo rohita fingerlings. Aquaculture Nutrition 17:164-173.

Chee K M, Chun K S, Huh B D, Choi J H, Chung M K, Lee H Sand Whang K Y 2005 Comparative feeding values of soybean hulls and wheat bran for growing and finishing swine. Asian-Aust Journal Animal Science, 18(6), 861-867.

Choge S. K, Pasiecznik N. M, Harvey M, Wright J, Awan S Z, and Harris P J C 2007 Prosopis pods as human food, with special reference to Kenya. Water Sa, 33(3).

Del Valle F.R, Escobedo M, Munoz M J, Ortega R and Bourges H 1983  Chemical  and nutritional studies on mesquite pods (Prosopis pods), Journal of Food Sciences 48:914

Dutch State Mines (DSM) Animal Nutrition 2016 "Nederlandse Staatsmijnen" DSM egg yolk pigmentation guidelines, DSM Bright Science. Bright Living Retrieved May 22, 2016 from http://www.dsm.com

Girma M, Tamir B, Dessie Tand Ababa A 2012 Effects of Replacing Peanut Seed Cake with Brewery Dried Yeast on Laying Performance , Egg Quality and Carcass Characteristics of Rhode Island Red Chicken, 11(1), 65–72. International Journal of Poultry Science 11 (1): 65-72, 2012

Girma M, Urge Mand Animut G 2011a Ground Prosopis juliflora pods as feed ingredient in poultry diet: Effects on nutrient intake, muscle fatty acid composition, sensory quality and hematology of broilers. Pakistan Journal of Nutrition, 11(11), 1014–1022.

Girma M, Urge M and Animut G 2011b Ground prosopis juliflora pod as feed ingredient in poultry diet: Effects on laying performance and egg quality. International Journal of Poultry Science, 10(11), 879–885.

Gueye EF 2000 The role of family poultry in poverty alleviation, food security and thepromotion of gender equality in rural Africa. Outlook on Agric., 29: 129-136.

Haugh R R 1937 The Haugh unit for measuring egg quality. US Egg. Poult. Mag., 43: 522-555, 572-573.

Herrero M, Ringler C, Steeg J Van De, Koo J and Notenbaert A 2010 Climate variability and climate change and their impacts on Kenya’s agricultural sector. ILRI, Nairobi. Kenya, 1–56.

Joly B P 2009 Factors That Influence Egg Weight : How To Change It To Meet Market Requirements, (2000), 1–11.from: http://www.isapoultry.com

King'ori A M, Wachira A M and Tuitoek J K 2014 Influence of energy intake on egg production and weight in indigenous chickens of Kenya. International Journal of Poultry Science, 13 (3), 151.

King'ori  A M, Tuitoek J K, Muiruri H K and Wachira  A M 2010 Effect of dietary crude protein levels on egg production, hatchability and post-hatch offspring performance of lndigenous chickens. International Journal of Poultry Science, 9(4), 324–329.

Kondra P A, Sell J L and GuenterW 1974 Response of meat and egg type chickens to a high fiber diet. Canadian Journal of Animal Sciences. 54:651 ~658.

Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries Development 2004 Indigenous Chickens Production in KenyaRetrieved June, 2, 2015 from http://www.researchgate.net

Mirnawati Y R, Marlida Y and Kompiang I P 2011 Evaluation of palm kernel cake fermented by Aspergillus niger as substitute for soybean meal protein in the diet of broiler. International Journal of Poultry Science, 10(7), 537-541.

Mukherjee TK 1992 Usefulness of indigenous breeds and imported stock for poultry production in hotclimates. In: World's Poult. Congr. September 1992. Amsterdam, The Netherlands.

Ngeno K, Vander Waaij E H and Kahi A K 2014 Indigenous chicken genetic resources in Kenya: their unique attributes and conservation options for improved use. World’s Poultry Science Journal, 70(01), 173–184.

Niekerk Tand Van 2014 Egg quality. Retrieved May, 12, 2016 from www.lowinputbreeds

Nigatu L G 2015 Effects of Inclusion of Ground Prosopis Juliflora Pod on Growth, Egg Production, Quality, Fertility And Hatchability of White Leghorn Hens. Statewide Agricultural Land Use Baseline 2015, August

Odero-waitituch J A, King’ori A M and Guliye A Y 2015 Prosopis juliflora Pods as Sources of Energy, Protein, Vitamins and Minerals in Livestock Diets in Kenya, 15(2073), 132–140. Egerton J. Sci. and Technol. Volume 15: 132-140

Olgun O, Yildiz A O and Cufadar Y 2013 Effects of limestone particle size and dietary available Phosphorus (AP) contents on performance, eggshell quality and mineral excretion in laying hens. Rev. Med. Vet.-Toulouse, 164, 464-470.

Silva J H V, de Oliveira J N C, da Silva E L, Jordao J and Ribeiro M L G 2002 Use of integral mesquite (Prosopis juliflora (Sw.) DC) pods meal in the Japanese quails feeding. Revista Brasileira De Zootecnia-Brazilian Journal of Animal Science, 31(4), 1789–1794.

Speedy A W 1991 The Development of the FAO Tropical Feeds Information System, 9–21. Retrieved, Abril, 14, 2016 Tropical Feeds and Feeding Systems from http://www.fao.org/livestock

Pearson D 1976 The Chemical Analysis of Food. (4th Ed) Churchill Living Edudiburgh, London. pp. 78-80

Received 18 September 2016; Accepted 8 December 2016; Published 1 January 2017

Go to top