Camel and cattle population dynamics and livelihood diversification as a response to climate change in pastoral areas of Ethiopia

Discussion

Higher income generated from camel and small stock as compared to that from cattle in the present study areas indicate the importance of camel and small stock in more arid areas than cattle under the current scenario of climate change. This is in agreement with earlier studies (Bekele et al 2008) that noted increased aridity in Borona Zone shifted the principal stock gradually from cattle combined with small stock to camels combined with small stock. Respondent of Borena pastoralists indicated that social status of households increased with increasing camel number in the recent years. This shows the increased value given by the community to camels than other livestock species. Household income from livestock for Afar pastoralists mainly come from small stock. This is consistent with that reported by Cossins (1983) who indicated that the Afar pastoralists largely depend on selling of small stock for subsistence. It is worth nothing that, selling of milk and milk products is not common in the study areas of Afar tradition and most of the Afar pastoralists’ use milk and milk products as a staple food. This is the reason for the low contribution of camel to immediate and direct household income in comparison with small stocks. This study is consistent with that of Alemayehu (2001) who noted that utilization of milk is largely governed by the need of the community and other cultural and traditional limitation. Use of camel milk as staple food by Afar community indicates the prestigious value of camel in the region, and that is why camel is given 1^st rank in overall importance as compared to other livestock species, although camel does not contribute much in generating income for immediate and direct household cash income. Afar pastoralists sell camels only when they require large amount of money.

Somali pastoralists frequently sell surplus male and unproductive camels. This is in agreement with Schwartz (1992) who stated that camels are important sources of cash for Somali pastoralists from sale of milk, milk products, and sales of surplus male and unproductive camels. Mehari et al (2007) also noted that camel milk sale was the main source of income and there are a number of camel milk collection centers for sell in local towns and cities as well as transported up to Somaliland. Other study (Abdi et al 2011) indicated that dairy camels of about 450 were available in Gode town and the revenue per day from the sale of camel milk was estimated to be about 16,875 birr (USD 900) These studies showed that camels are the primary animal in providing both immediate and direct cash income to the Somali pastoralists.

Wealth determination among the Borana pastorals consider both camel and cattle number. In agreement with the present finding, Care (2009) reported that Borana pastoralists recognized camels as providing long-term security to beneficiaries in terms of milk production and improved social status. Similarly wealth status of Afar and Somali pastoralists are mainly determined by the number of camels owned. Borana pastoralist who own less than 5 camels is classified into medium/lower wealth group but, do not considered as poor as in the case of Somali and Afar pastoralists.  Study result indicated that Afar and Somali pastoralists owning less than 5 camels is considered as poor, 5-20 subsistent, and 20-30 as medium and above 30 rich. Tegegne (1991) noted that Afar pastoralist having 10 camels is considered as subsistent level, but having more than 70 places the household in a rich social status, indicating that camel number per household were higher than the present time. The highest number of camel population in Gode and Jijiga districts in this study was similar to reports of Devereux (2004) who observed that heavily pastoral Somali Region emerges as the wealthiest of all Ethiopia‘s rural regions.

Livelihood diversification observed in the study areas may indicate the response of pastoralists to avoid risk of losing livestock due to climate change, rangeland degradation and other factors. In addition, it indicates that the productivity of livestock decreased due to the occurrence of multiple droughts in the region, which in turn made income diversification an important venture and alternative option to increase income and sustain livelihood. According to this study, Somali pastoralists are more involved in livelihood diversification (15-35%) than Afar pastoralists (5-10%). This may be the cultural influence among Afar pastoralists’ communities, which discourage involvement in activities other than livestock rearing. Previous study also depicted that 70 % of the Somali pastoralists engaged in livestock rearing while 30 % in crop cultivation, fire wood selling and petty trade (Devereux 2006).  About 20 % of income earning from non-pastoral sources for many pastoral locations in Eastern and Southern Africa were also reported by Little et al (2010). Similarly, Little (2001) noted that livestock herders of East Africa increasingly pursue non-pastoral income strategies to meet consumption needs and to buttress against risky shocks caused by climatic fluctuation, animal disease, market failure, and insecurity. About 72, 18, and 10 % of pastoral, arable farming, and non-farm non pastoral livelihood among Borena pastoralists was also reported by Birhanu et al 2007.

COMESA (2009) suggested that income diversification as a risk coping and management strategy will continue to increase among pastoralists especially in light of the future uncertainties in climate change and food prices. This report also noted that livelihood diversification should be distinguished between good and less good form of diversification to provide employment for poor and supporting pastoral production.

The present study revealed that the current cattle number was 60% less than before twenty years in Borena pastorals. Ayana (2007) also noted that cattle holdings of Borena zone during the past 20 years have decreased by 54%, indicating that the total population of Borana cattle was dwindling during the past few decades. This is attributed to loss of cattle due to low productivity of the rangeland, erratic rainfall, and multiple droughts. In recent years, cattle herd in Borana consists of higher proportion of heifers than cows, which could be an indication of high mortality of breeding female than non-breeding classes of cattle. In this regard, the study by Ayana (2007) explained that drought induced mortality affected breeding females and immature animals more than mature males in both ranch and communal rangeland systems in Borana regions.

In southern Ethiopia, cattle herd dynamics both in communal and ranch management is strongly determined by rainfall variability (Ayana and Oba 2007) which shows that climate change in the region affected both cattle in communal grazing land and ranch management. This may raise a question about the importance of ex-situ conservation for Borana cattle in ranches out of its breeding tract. Paradoxically, an existing public ranch (Adamitulu-Abernosa) has been privatized and being used for other purpose.

Similar to Borana area, the trend of climate change, recurrent drought and loss of livestock was indicated in the study by Logiya councilors and Vanessa (2009) who described that previously the Afar region climate experienced three rainy seasons throughout the year; the ‘Karma’ rain considered the main rainy season and lasts for a period of approximately 2 months and comes from the highlands (in the months of July and August). The second season is ‘Daddah’ and comes from the direction of the red sea (in the months of November and December or winter rains) and is now the most unreliable often giving only a single shower. ‘Suggum’ is the third or short rainy season (in the months of March and April). The regional decrease in rain has seen the ‘Karma’ rainfall for only 15 days, then the ‘Suggum’ rain for 1-2 days only. Now the region generally sees rain in only one of these periods. The emerging pattern has been that if the ‘karma’ rains come, then the ‘suggum’ rains fail or vice versa, and these are at a much reduced quantity than usual. 

In relation to climate change and drought the study by Tegegne (1991) noted that Afar pastoralist having 10 camels is considered as subsistent level, but having more than 70 places the household in a rich social status, indicating that camel number per household were higher than the present time. As the author indicated that the pastoralist households lost 32% of the present camel stock and 4 times the number of goats, sheep and cattle they own today during the drought of 1984/85.  In addition, Melaku and Fissha (2001) reported that camel population trend decreased for the last 10 years (1990- 2000).  

Other study (Joanne et al 2005) indicated that a total of 45,090 cattle deaths were reported from 17 woredas in zone 1, 2 and 4 in the 2003/4 drought period but body condition of goat and camel were not seriously affected as the browse availability is not bad in all woredas. Due to the constant droughts and loss of herds of cattle, the Afar pastoralists have at their disposal less than 40% of the livestock compared with the situation of 10 years ago.   In relation to this Hamad (2008) noted that the repeated droughts in Afar region is related to natural climatic change, and the lack of grass and water often lead to the mass death of livestock. 

The result of this study in the reduction of cattle number for the past 20 years in Gode district was in agreement with Mahamud (1999) who reported that 1998/99 drought conditions in Gode, Imey-East, Adadley, and Danan districts were the worst in Gode zone from Somali regional state. According to the report more than 90% of the cattle and 70% of the sheep had died, and a few that remain were in an extremely emaciated condition.  

Similarly, in Shinille zone study by Beatrice et al (2009) reported that from the drought of 2007 and 2008 the communities lost about 80% of their cattle, 70% of their sheep, 40% of their camels and 30% of their goats. According to the same report extreme heat was mentioned as a major hazard in Shinile. The impacts of extreme temperatures are very similar to the impacts of droughts, including decreased pasture availability; increased water evaporation, leading to water shortages; emaciation and death of livestock; decreased livestock disease resistance and productivity.

The presence of higher number of cattle before 20 years in Gode, Borena and Mille districts in comparison to other districts may be due to the presence of favorable environmental and climatic condition. But currently all the study areas had small and almost similar number of cattle in comparison to the past 20 years. 

According to Funk (2012) the causes for such huge lose was climate changes observed in the pastoral areas of the country. The climate change which occurred for the past 50 (1960–2009)   years had showed a northwestward retreat of 250 mm of Belg season rain (March–June), and projected to continue for 2010–2039. The observed rainfall declines during the Belg season had been reducing the quantity and quality of viable pasturelands. Funk et al (2012) also noted that between the mid-1970s and late 2000s, Belg and Kiremt (main rainy season) rainfall decreased by 15–20 percent across parts of southern, southwestern, and southeastern Ethiopia. Whatever the case may be, it is evident that more and more pastoralist households, especially the poorer households, are increasingly affected by severe drought, which occurs approximately every 3 to 5 years (Aklilu and Catley 2010).  

As a consequence of high loses of cattle due to climate change, bush-encroachment and other factors most of the interviewed pastoralists in the present study areas lost interest to raise cattle in the future. Based on our survey some of the pastoralists in Amibara district lost interest on their indigenous cattle and start crossing with Kereyu cattle breed. The pastoralists presume that Kereyu cattle breed is more resistant than Afar breed to the present drought and climate change. In this regard Biffa & Chaka (2002) reported that pastoralists started animal species diversification, especially increased camel number to avert uncertainties, as strategy for drought mitigation and coping up with changing rangeland ecology in Borena zone. The study by Coppock et al. (2008) also suggested the importance of motivating pastoralists to consider diversifying assets and incomes to overcome impact of rainfall variability and stocking rate density.

In the present study and in reports of Central Statistical Authority (CSA) on livestock survey from 1997 to 2011, increments of camel population were clearly observed except for the year 2010/11, in all the study districts. This may show the importance of camel for the present and future climate change mitigation. This is because of the fact that camel is physiologically and physically adaptable animal to the expanding bush encroachment of arid areas. Biffa and Chaka (2002) reported that ecological changes, socio-cultural conditions, and increased frequencies of drought recurrences have been the main driving force behind the expansion of camels into the Borana plateau. Similarly, Solomon et al (2007) reported that camel holdings among Boranas have shown an increasing trend over time, while other livestock holdings were declining. The importance and number of camel is also increasing in other Sub-Sharan African countries. In this regard, among Wodaabe pastoralists in Niger, who are usually attached to cattle breeding, camel now represents a security tool for their livestock systems during hard times (Kratli 2007).

Conclusion

• The result of our study and the existing literature in the area clearly revealed that the combined effect of pastoralist need and the impact of climate change may place the pastoral cattle breeds at risk in the near future. As observed in this study cattle is the most affected species in all the sites by the current climate change. Climate change in these sites was expressed as recurrent drought, extreme temperature, replacement of grazing lands by bush encroachment and loss of disease resistance livestock species and others. Breeding indices should include traits associated with thermal tolerance, ability to utilize low quality feed and disease resistance, and to give more consideration of genotype-by-environment interactions (GxE) to identify animals most adapted to specific conditions. If in situ conservation is unfavorable due to the devastating effects of climate, ex situ conservation programmes need to be developed to cater for loss as a result of habitat destruction and allow for emergency response. Thus, conservation status of different cattle breeds in the pastoral areas should be assessed, quick identification and appropriate conservation strategies should be implemented, and appropriate breeding management practices of the breeds should be followed.

Acknowledgements

Financial support was provided by EIAR (Ethiopian institute of Agricultural Research) and Haramaya University. We thank the institutes for the grant. We thank employees of Regional Agricultural Bureaus and Ethiopian institute of Agricultural Research (EIAR) in Afar and Somali regional offices for the unreserved cooperation and assistance during data collection.

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Received 24 July 2013; Accepted 14 August 2013; Published 4 September 2013

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