Livestock Research for Rural Development 23 (6) 2011 Notes to Authors LRRD Newsletter

Citation of this paper

Local use and knowledge validation of fodder trees and shrubs browsed by livestock in Bushbuckridge area, South Africa

R M Chepape, K R Mbatha* and D Luseba

Tshwane University of Technology
Private Bag X680, Pretoria 0001, South Africa
* National Zoological Gardens of South Africa, P.O. Box 754, Pretoria, 0001, South Africa
lusebad@tut.ac.za

Abstract

Sustainable production of livestock usually involves efficient utilisation of locally available resources i.e. feed and remedies. Smallholder farmers rely on their visual observations and experiences in feeding and health management of livestock. The aim of this study was to identify and evaluate farmers’ knowledge on the utilisation of fodder trees and shrubs as livestock production resources. The ethnobotanical survey using a semi-structured questionnaire and focus group discussions was conducted among livestock owners and keepers in the Bushbuckridge rural area of South Africa. Seventy five participants were interviewed, of which 41.3% were females and 58.7% were males.

Males aged over 40 years reported more browsed plants than females and young people. Limited participation of women in the survey was culturally related while young people had difficulty to accept the so-called outdated information. Cattle were predominantly kept, followed by goats. The study uncovered 32 browse plants belonging to 18 families. Fabaceae and Combretaceae families having six and five species, respectively, were predominant. Acacia nilotica, Carpobrotus edulis, Combretum hereroense, Dichrostachys cinerea, Diospyros mespiliformis, Ficus sycomorus, Mangifera indica, Terminalia sericea, Psidium guajava, Persea americana, and were reported in most of the locations. Some of the reported plants have been studied for their nutritive value and some are also used as ethnoveterinary remedies prompting the necessity for further investigations for the nutraceutical properties of browsed plants.

Keywords: combretaceae, ethnobotany, fabaceae, indigenous knowledge, nutraceutical


Introduction

Bushbuckridge is mostly a rural area, dominated by subsistence and small scale farming activities. Livestock rearing is considered as an occupation and source of income for the majority of resource-poor farmers in the area. Sustainable production of livestock usually involves efficient utilisation of locally available resources i.e. feed and remedies. Like most people living in the rural areas, especially the low income groups, people in this area rear livestock on diets consisting of high quantities of indigenous plants. Smallholder farmers rely on their visual observations and experiences in feeding and health management of livestock (Kavana and Msangi 2005). However, the low quality and quantity of available forages during the dry season are major constraints for improved livestock production in these areas. Like in many rural areas of South Africa, the available grazing is not generally sufficient to meet the maintenance requirements of grazing animals (Matlebyane et al 2010) during dry periods.

As a major source of animal feeds in Africa, fodder trees and shrubs are highly valued by farmers. Browses have multiple roles in farming systems such as feed, fire wood and as human and veterinary medicines (Luseba and Van der Merwe 2006). These forage species contain appreciable amounts of nutrients that are deficient in other feed resources such as grasses during dry seasons and dry periods. They have deep root systems enabling the extraction of water and nutrients from deep in the soil profile (Teferi et al 2008). Most browse plants have high crude protein content, ranging from 10 to more than 25% on a dry matter basis (Moleele 1998). This reliable protein resource can be used to develop a sustainable feeding system and increase livestock productivity.

Practices and knowledge of ethnobotany vary with socioeconomic level, geographical origin, age, gender, ethnicity, level of education and profession (Pfeifer and Butz 2005). Allem (2000) defined ethnobotany as “the biological, economic, cultural inter-relationship studies between people and plants in the environment which they exist”. It is an integral part of indigenous/local knowledge of a particular society (Osawaru and Danin-Ogbe 2010).

Osawaru 2010). Different communities have their own knowledge about plants and their uses. Luseba and Van der Merwe (2006) referred to “ethny specific” characteristics of this local knowledge. Farmers have an impressive knowledge of browsed species. Involving farmers in the process of data collection is important because as potential users of new technologies to be developed, their knowledge and preferences are critical (Haugerud and Collinson 1990). However, some of the knowledge is liable to be distorted or lost completely if transfer is not done continuously.

The present study was conducted to describe the knowledge and utilisation of trees and shrubs as feed for livestock in the Bushbuckridge area and to document the results in order to prevent loss of information during oral transfer from one generation to another.

Material and methods

Study area

The study was conducted in Bushbuckridge Municipality. The study area (24° 49’ 60” S and 31° 4’ 0” E) is located in the South African lowveld vegetation, on the border between the Mpumalanga and Northern Limpopo provinces (Figure 1). The Kruger National Park is on the eastern border of Bushbuckridge, and the Limpopo Province borders northern edge of the municipality. Bushbuckridge receives about 860 mm of rain per year, with most rain occurring mainly during mid-summer (Wikipedia, 2011). The average midday temperature for Bushbuckridge range from 22°C in June to 28.3°C in January. The indigenous ethnic groups found in the Bushbuckridge municipality are Tsonga, Sotho (Pedi/Mapulana), Swati and Zulu.


Sampling Informants

The localities were selected based on different factors including:

Cultural differences affected the sampling methods with regards to gender; for instance there were a limited number of females in areas inhabited in majority by Swati and Zulu ethnical groups. However, we strived to interview people of different age group and gender. The number of participants was also limited by the willingness and the availability of the farmers. At each dipping tank, knowledgeable people were identified with the help of the local veterinary officers and the dipping tank chairpersons.  

Ethnobotanical data collection

The survey was conducted between June and September 2010. Individual interviews and focus group discussions were undertaken at the dipping tanks. These, together with field walks were done under the guidance of local farmers, local veterinarian and agricultural extension officers. The field walks were done to find and collect samples of plants reported during the interviews. Informant consent forms were available and read to the participants to build trust prior to the interviews.  Most of the farmers could not sign the consent forms since they were illiterate but accepted to participate in the study. Two questionnaires were used; one was for individual farmer/keepers and another for group focus discussions. Focus group discussions helped to triangulate the results from our own observations and individual interviews; this helped to harmonise the findings from individual interviews and helped to share the information. Results from individual participants were related to more general data emerging from the focus group discussions. Vernacular languages were used when talking to individual farmers and during the group focus discussions.

Issues related to the knowledge on trees and shrubs such as availability and acceptability by the animals were discussed during the interviews. Information on plant morphology and photographs of the plant samples were also taken during the field walk to facilitate identification. Plant samples were collected from each locality where they were reported. Immediately after collection, all voucher specimens were labelled and placed in the plant press according to Fish (1999). Plant identification was done at the University of Limpopo herbarium and confirmed at the University of Venda for Science and Technology by a plant taxonomist.

Socio-demographic description of respondents

A total of 75 livestock keepers/owners and local people with profound knowledge on plant species browsed were interviewed, of which 31 (41.3%) were females and 44 (58. 7%) were males (Table 1). However, there were more females than males in Violetbanks and Dwarsloop where the Pedi ethnic group was predominant.  


Figure 2. Frequencies of different ethnic groups from each sampling site


 The respondents were aged between 21 and 84 years. The largest group consisted of people aged over 40 years in all the sampled areas (Table 1). The majority of the respondents were pensioners and were more readily available during the time of survey than the group aged less than 40 years. Majority of the respondents were illiterate (63%).

Table 1. Gender, age and level of education of the respondents per location

 

Gender

Age

Level of education

Locality

Resp.

Female

Male

21-40

> 40

N

P

S

T

Lillydale

10

3

7

0

10

5

2

3

0

Clare A

11

3

8

0

11

8

2

1

0

Violetbank

13

8

5

4

9

6

4

3

0

Calcutta

15

3

12

3

12

11

4

0

0

Alexandria

16

8

8

3

13

10

2

3

1

Dwarsloop

10

6

4

0

10

8

2

0

0

Total

75

31

44

10

65

48

16

10

1

Where N=None; P=Primary; S=Secondary; T=Tertiary

Statistical Analysis

Data analysis was performed using Microsoft Office Excel®, and descriptive statistics (percentages or proportions and frequencies) were presented.

Results and Discussion

Animal Husbandry

Livestock provides a livelihood to the majority of the people in Bushbuckridge. Cattle followed by goats and at a lesser extent pigs were kept in the area (Table 2), in average; farmers kept eight, three and one respectively. Chickens are kept under a strict backyard production system and are not recorded by the veterinary extension personnel. This compares with the findings of Tewe (1995) who reported cattle as the predominant domestic animal in West Africa, Van der Merwe et al (2001) among Tswana and with that of Luseba and Van der Merwe (2006) among Tsonga speaking people. Similar to the results of Adekunle et al (2002), cattle in Bushbuckridge are also kept as a status symbol and cultural medium. Cattle play a major role in marriages, weddings, sacrifices and funerals. A lesser number of animals was kept by the respondents compared with the total herd in the area; for example, in Lillydale 1288 cattle were kept in the veterinary service records, however, only 9 (0.7%) were reported to be kept by the respondents. Out of 171 goats and 321 pigs in Lillydale, none of the respondents reported to keep pigs and goats (Table 2). This might indicate that the young and wealthier farmers rarely participate in such surveys and leave care of animals to the older and unemployed livestock herders. 


Table 2. Frequencies of livestock species in the area

Dipping tank

Veterinary service  records

 

 

Farm animals reported by respondents

Farmers Number

Farm animals recorded

Cattle

Goats

Pigs

Cattle

Goats

Chickens

Pigs

Lillydale

125

1288

171

321

9

0

4

0

Clare A

57

718

220

33

11

4

7

0

Violetbank

65

280

288

79

13

6

4

2

Calcutta

101

676

209

58

14

0

13

0

Alexandria

159

1077

577

64

12

4

7

0

Dwarsloop

103

642

214

8

6

2

4

1

Total

610

4681

1678

563

65

16

39

3

Knowledge and ethnobotanical important browsed species

Tsonga speaking people predominantly participated in the study (Figure 2). They were encountered in all the locations surveyed because Tsongas are predominantly found in the Limpopo and Mpumalanga provinces. As pointed out by Luseba and Van der Merwe (2006) ethnically, Tsongas are a minority group in South Africa and it is assumed that loss of tradition in a minority group is greater than in bigger groups. The Pedi ethnic group is reported to have no regulations on female involvement in livestock farming because they are generally accepted at the dipping tanks contrary to practice among other ethnical groups encountered (Zulu, Swati and Tsonga) where females were rarely present at the dipping tanks. As reported in other areas of South Africa (Cunningham and Zondi 1991) women generally do not keep large animals. According to Toledo et al (2009) cultural environments have a stronger influence than the natural environments on the use of medicinal and edible plants in rural communities. In spite of living in the same environments, different ethnic groups have their own knowledge and experience of utilising plant species.

Thirty one plant species belonging to 18 families were identified (Table 3). The plant families with more species were Combretacea and Fabaceae (five, six respectively). Fabaceae is made up of 730 genera and more than 19,000 species. Combretaceae occurs in both tropical and subtropical climates and consists of 20 genera in about 300 species with Combretum and Terminalia being the important (Eloff et al 2008) most used as fodders and EVM remedies (Dibungi Luseba, personal communication, 2011).

Table 3. Plants identified to be browsed by livestock in different location, their habitat, favoured plant part, animal species

Family and  Botanical name

Voucher No.

Common names

Habitat

Plant parts used

Animal species

Anacardiaceae, Mangifere indica L.

CS0053

Momango (S), Mango (E)

T

L

Goats, cattle

Apocynaceae, Carissa endulis vahl

CS0063

Mothokolo(S)
Carandus plum(E)

S

L, F

Goats, cattle

Bignoniaceae, Tecoma stans (L.) Juss. Ex Kunth.

CS0016

Nembenembe (T) Yellow trumphet bush (E))

T

F

Cattle, goats

Cactaceae, Opuntia-ficus indica (L.) Mill.

CS0081

Xetorofeiye (S), prickly pear (E)

Crop plant

 

Goats, cattle

Celestraceae, Gymnosporia senegalensis  Lam.Loes

CS0057

Xehlangwa (T), Red spiked thorn (E)

S

L

Goats, cattle

Celestraceae, Peltophorum africanum Sond.

CS0077

Mpongankomo (SS), Nhlangwa (T) African wattle (E)

T

L

Goats

Chrysobalanaceae, Parinari curatefollifolia Planch.ex.Benth

CS0050

Mola (S), cock tree (E)

T

F, L

Cattle, goats

Combretaceae, Combretum erythrophyllum (Burch) Sond.

CS0025

Xitohana (T), River bushwillow (E)

S

L

Cattle, goats

Combretaceae, Combretum hereroense Schinz

CS0015

Skhabi (T), Russet-bushwillow (E)

S

L

Cattle, goats

Ebanaceae,

Diospyros mespiliformis Hochst.ex.A.D.C

CS0037

Ntoma (T), Jackle berry (E)

T

L

Cattle, goats

Combretaceae, Terminalia sericea Burch ex D.C.

 

CS0047

Mosusu/Nkonolo (T) silver cluster leaf (E)

S

L

Goats, cattle

Combretaceae, Combretum zeyheri

CS0045

Mposa (T), large fruited bushwillow (E)

S

L

Goats, cattle

Ebenaceae,  Euclea natalensis A.D.C.

CS0024

 

umHlangula (T) Natal guarri (E)

S

L

Goats

Ebeneceae,  Euclea crispa (Thunb.) Gurke

 

CS0029

Nhlangula-nyare (T), Blue guarri (E)

S

F

Goats

Fabaceae, Acacia nilotica (L). wild.ex.Delile

CS0012

Shangwa (T), Scanted-pod acacia (E)

T

P

Cattle, goats

Fabaceae,

Acacia sieberina DC.var. woodii

CS0021

Mganduse(S),paperbark thorn (E)

S

L

Goats, cattle

Fabaceae, 

Bauhinia galpinii wild.ex.Delile

CS0010

Nkholokhotlo (S,T),Scented-pod acacia

T

P

Cattle goats

Fabaceae,

Dichrostachys cinerea wight et Arn

 

CS009

Nzenga (T), moretshe (S),mzilazembe (SS), Sickle bush (E)

S

P

Goats, cattle

Fabaceae, Philenoptera violacea (Klotzsch) Schrire

CS0070

Sehomhom (SS), apple-leaf (E)

S

L

Goats, cattle

Lauraceae, Persea Americana Mill

CS0047

Mokhwathapeni (S), Avocado (E)

T

L

Goats, cattle

Loganiaceae,

Strychnos punges Solered.

CS0033

Nkwakwa (T), spined leaved (E)

T

L

Goats, Cattle

Moraceae,  Ficus sycomorus  L.

CS0013

Nkuwa (T), Mkhiwa (SS), Sycamore fig (E)

T

L, F

Cattle, goats

Myrtaceae, Psidium gunjava L.

CS0020

Moguaba (P), Guava (E)

T

L

Goats, cattle

Myrtaceae, Syzygium cordatum Hochst.ex.C.Krauss

CS0058

Mohlu(S),Water berry(E)

T

F, L

Goats, cattle

Olacaceae, Ximenia caffra Sond.

CS0017

Mthonduluka (S) large sourplum (E

S

L

Cattle, goats

Rubiaceae, Vangueria infausta Burch. subsp. infausta

 

CS0017

Mphila (T)
Mtula(Z)Wild medlara (E)

S

L

Cattle goats

Sterculuiaceae, Dombeya rotundifolia Hochst.

CS0028

Mbungelo (Z), Wild pear (E)

T

L

Goats, cattle

Combretaceae, Combretum collinum L.

CS0032

Nkuhlu (T) Bushwillow (E)

T

L

Cattle, Goats

Fabaceae, Acacia ataxacantha DC

CS0043

Senkaya (T), Flamethorn ( E)

S

L

Goats

Verbanaceae, Lantana camara L.

CS0041

Rentani (T), Lantana (E)

S

L

Goats

Vitaceae,

Rhoicissus tridentate Wild and Drum

CS0051

Mbenzana (Z),Bitter grape (E)

S

L

Goats

Where T=Tree; S=shrub; L=leaves; P=pods; F=fruit;   S=Sepedi; SS=Swati; =Tsonga; Z=Zulu

The initial question of the interview about what farmers/keepers use to feed their livestock was abandoned since the practice was not common among informants in the area. Famers reported not to feed their livestock since it is possible to rear them on free-range, which is less costly and with less managerial involvement. The focus of the study was therefore shifted to their observation on livestock voluntary feeding.  Farmers reported the browsed species according to observed voluntary intake and subsequent animal performance of browsers on different fodder trees and shrubs. Dichrostachys cinerea was reported as the most preferred species by both cattle and goats. Local people generally recognise the trees and shrubs which are well appreciated by ruminants and their nutritive importance (Komwihangilo et al 2001).  

The plant species that were cited by more than two individuals in different locations are shown in Table 4. According to Kansonia and Ansay (1997) there is a consistency when one plant is cited for the same use by more than two respondents. In this study, 16 plants were reported by more than two individuals for the same utilisation (Table 4). Apart from high number of male participants in the survey, individual males showed to be more knowledgeable on the utilisation of browsed species than females. It was reported that males spent more time at the veld than females since females are also involved in other domestic chores. Contrary, it was reported that females in some other pastoral communities are sometimes more skilful than males in other aspects (Komwihangilo et al 2001). According to  Alonge and Alonge (2006) individual men and women in each new generation adapt and add to traditional knowledge and socio-cultural practices in a constant adjustment to changing circumstances and environmental condition.

Older people aged over 40 years reported to know more plants species browsed by livestock than young ones (Table 4). Several studies indicate that older people know more about plant uses than young ones (Benz et al 2000; Van der Merwe et al 2001; Latoya et al 2003). Our finding corroborates with the long-standing belief that only the elder people possess the knowledge and have a strong tendency to keep their knowledge secret. Generally, the traditional knowledge on the use of plant species is decreasing due to several reasons including change in approach towards a more western lifestyle and declining interest of younger generations to carry forward the tradition (Luseba and Van der Merwe 2006). This is a concern for knowledge transfer. Young people consider indigenous knowledge (IK) as outdated and farming is normally regarded as an old man’s job; they often associate IK with witchcraft (Dr Dibungi Luseba, personal communication, 2011). 

Dichrostachys cinerea was the most known shrub species as indicated by both gender and all age groups encountered (Table 4). In the Limpopo province, D .cinerea is ranked second as predominant fodder for livestock (Matlebyane et al 2010). Similarly the findings of Komwihangilo et al (1995) in Central Tanzania showed D. cinerea to be known and used by 40% of respondents. None of these studies has described the nutritional values of this plant species. It was reported to be favoured by goats and cattle in winter. However, local people cut it for other uses such as fire, wood and fences due to its structural defence mechanism, thorns that disturbs the growth of grasses during wet period (summer) and minimise the access of animals to grasses and forbs.

In dry seasons, when animals are on verge of starvation, conserved plants can be used. Unfortunately, fodder shrubs and trees are not cut for feeding animals in the study area.  Some farmers indicated that cutting plants is time consuming and laborious and they do not have enough storage space to keep the plant materials for feeding during dry seasons. However, the majority of the respondents did not know if this could add value to feeding practices during dry periods. Tshikudo et al (unpublished) reported contrary results with Venda speaking people who cut the plants part and feed their livestock during the dry season. Similarly to Tshikudo et al (unpublished) findings, Komwihangilo et al (1995) reported that some farmers in Central Tanzania collect pods of tree species and keep them at their homes for the purpose of feeding calves and sick animals which could not walk long distances in search of water and feed during the dry season.

Table 4. Frequencies of trees and shrubs cited by more than two individuals, both males and females of different age groups per locations

 

Females

Males

 

Age 21 - 40 yr

Age at least 40 yr

Total

Ages 21 - 40 yr

Age at least 40 yr

Total

Browsed species

Frequency

%

Frequency

%

Frequency

%

Frequency

%

Frequency

%

Frequency

%

P. curatellifolia

1

14.29

6

19.35

7

18.42

-

-

2

2.27

2

2.06

D. cinerea

2

28.57

5

16.13

7

18.42

2

22.22

27

30.68

29

29.90

M. indica

1

14.29

6

19.35

7

18.42

1

11.11

5

5.68

6

6.19

S. cordatum

1

14.29

3

9.68

4

10.53

-

-

-

-

-

-

P. guajuva

-

-

1

3.23

1

2.63

1

11.11

2

2.27

3

3.09

C. edulis vahl

-

-

2

6.45

2

5.26

-

-

-

-

-

-

D. mesipiiformis

-

-

2

6.45

2

5.26

-

-

6

6.82

7

7.22

B. galpinii

-

 

-

-

-

-

1

11.11

6

6.82

6

6.19

F. sycomorus

-

-

1

2.70

1

2.63

1

11.11

6

6.82

6

6.19

A. nilotica

-

-

1

2.70

1

2.63

1

11.11

4

4.55

5

5.15

O. ficus indica

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

1

1.14

2

2.06

C. hereroense

-

-

-

-

-

-

1

11.11

12

13.64

13

13.40

T. cinerea

-

-

2

5.41

2

5.26

-

-

9

10.23

9

9.28

L. camara

-

-

-

-

-

-

1

11.11

5

5.68

6

6.19

P. americana

2

28.57

2

5.41

4

10.53

-

-

3

3.41

3

3.09

Total

7

100

31

100

38

100

9

100

88

100

97

100


The number of plants species cited in different locations is depicted in Table 5. Diospyros cinerea (41) followed by M. indica (15), T. sericea (13) and C. hereroense (12) were the most cited but D. mesipiiformis, P. americana, B. galpinii and A. nilotica are also important plant species in the area. The use of these browse species are relatively related to availability and preference by the animal species. Furthermore, the distribution, abundance and utilisation of these species were uniform in almost surveyed locations. The majority of these species retain leaves until late into dry season and the pods of species like D. cinerea and A. nilotica are available throughout the dry season.  It is of outmost important for livestock keepers/owners to prefer these species so that more feed could be supplied at critical times of the year. Leaves, pods, twigs, seeds, flowers were the plant parts reported to be browsed by livestock. However, leaves were the most preferred plant fraction utilized by livestock (Table 3) followed by fruits and pods compared with stems and seeds. The pods of D. cinerea and A. nilotica were reported to be favoured by both cattle and goats during the dry periods. According to Aganga and Tshwenyane (2003) the parts of trees that are commonly used as feed include leaves, tender shoots or twigs, fruits, pods and seeds.  In general, leaves are higher in crude protein than twigs, almost twice as much in the case of southern African browse (Walker 1980) indicating that livestock in the area have access to nutritious feed. Leaves also contain more crude protein on average than pods but the latter were found with higher organic matter and digestibility (Goehl 1981).  

Table 5. Number of  fodder trees and shrubs cited in different locations

Localities

Plant species

Lillydale

Clare A

Violetbanks

Calcutta

Alexandria

Dwarsloop

M. indica

0

0

5

0

6

4

C. hereroense

0

11

0

0

1

0

V. infausta

0

2

0

2

0

0

L. camara

0

0

0

4

1

1

F. sycomorus

3

2

0

0

0

0

D. cinerea

4

12

7

8

6

4

P. guajuva

0

0

3

0

1

0

C. endulis vahl

0

0

2

0

0

1

V. cyanescens

0

0

2

1

0

0

D. mesipiiformis

2

2

0

0

1

4

B. galpinii

2

0

0

1

4

0

A. nilotica

4

2

0

0

0

1

O. ficus-indica

2

0

0

1

0

0

P. shrine

0

4

0

1

0

0

T. sericea

0

6

0

5

0

2

P. americana

0

0

7

0

0

2

Total

17

41

26

23

20

19

Nutritional value and veterinary uses of some local fodder trees and shrubs

Leguminous species were found to contain 25 to 50% more crude protein than non-leguminous plants (Nitis 1989). Mokoboki et al (2005) reported the nutritional values, the type and amount of tannins of acacia tree foliage grown in the Limpopo Province (Acacia karroo, Acacia nilotica, Acacia tortilis, Acacia galpinii, Acacia sieberiana, Acacia hebeclada and Acacia rhemniana). All the acacia species had crude protein levels above 100 g/kg dry matter (DM), ranging from 103 g/kg DM for A. rhemniana to 183 g/kg DM for A. sieberiana. Crude protein (CP) levels of this magnitude in a diet are adequate to support the requirements of cattle, sheep and goats at low to medium production levels. Mokoboki et al (2005) concluded that all the species except A. galpinii, A. karoo and A. tortillis are of good nutritive value. Dichrostachys cinerea is a valuable fodder tree and there are various beneficial effects resulting from supplementing ruminants with D. cinerea. Smith et al (2005) reported improved performance of goats resulting from supplementation with D. cinerea fruits. Basha et al (2009) reported D. cinerea to have 123.2 g/kg CP, and low tannin content (57.9 g/kg).

The chemical composition of combretum species (C. apiculatum, C. molle and C.zeyheri) was well determined by Lukhele and Van Ryssen (2003). Mean values CP concentration varied from 92 g/kg DM for C. molle to 141 mg/kg DM for C. mopani. These values are comparable to those reported for acacia species (Mokoboki et al 2005). Ficus sycomorus is also among the identified browse species since it provides fruits and leaves during winter. Nutritional status of this species was determined by Nkafamiya et al (2010). Results obtained for proximate composition showed protein content of 17.24 ± 0, 71% and it has a high percentage of crude fibre (31.54 ± 0, 11%). They concluded that F.sycomorus can serve as a good source of nutrients.

 Diospyros mesipiiformis was found to have low levels of CP (5.46 g/kg) but high levels of total carbohydrates (77.21%) (Ezeagu et al 2002). Opuntia ficus indica was reported by few respondents. The fruits of O. ficus-indica contain carbohydrates (4-6%), protein (1-2%) and a moderate amount of vitamins A and C (Cantwell, 1991).

Protein (1-2%) and a moderate amount of vitamins A and C (Cantwal, 1991). However, Tegegne (2001) reported that the anti-nutritional characteristics such as spines, may affect nutritional value by limiting palatability and digestibility and so utilisation efficiency of semiscent species. 

Animal health problems are major constraints to livestock production in many countries, especially in the tropics (Etuk et al 2005). Cattle in Bushbuckridge have been exposed to Foot and Mouth disease due to the vicinity with the Kruger National Park. As noted by Luseba and Van der Merwe (2006) for many decades, dipping to control ticks and other veterinary services have been provided free of charge (as compensation). These have contributed to the lesser use of ethnoveterinary medicines in this area.  However, this practice is somehow maintained in the area owing to the deep understanding of the world around them, otherwise a broader knowledge system which guides indigenous people in the management of resources within their ancestral land (Orticio, 2006).

From a study on ethnoveterinary medicine conducted simultaneously in the same area, it can be revealed that many of these plants have both nutritional and therapeutic properties. Food (or part of a food) that provides medical or health benefits, including the prevention and/or treatment of a disease is referred to as nutraceutical (Kharb and Singh 2004). The term nutraceuticals was coined from “nutrition” and “pharmaceutical” in 1989 by Stephen DeFelice, MD, the founder and Chairman of the Foundation for Innovation in Medicine (FIM), in Cranford, New Jersey, United States of America (Kalra, 2003). For example, Dombeya rotundifolia was evaluated for its biological activity. It showed antibacterial and anthelmintics activities (MacGaw et al 2007).  Aqueous and organic leaf extracts of C. hereroense showed good activity in in vitro assays against the free-living nematode Caenorhabditis elegans (MacGaw et al 2001).

Members of combretacea have been extensively studied and shown to have broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity (Martini, et al 2001; Katerere et al 2003; Eloff et al 2008). Several flavonoids, trriterpenoids, and stilbenoids have been isolated from Combretaceae and were shown to be biologically active (Alves et al 2010).  Leaves of C. erythrophorum reported by Martin and Eloff (1998) to have antimicrobial activity.

Maphosa et al (2010) reported that species from Fabaceae family are used to treat various animal diseases, ranging from bacterial diseases to conditions caused by internal and external parasites. Peltophorum africanum was reported by Bizimenyera et al (2005) to have anthelmintic and antioxidant activities. There is a need to assess these plants in order to give scientific evidence for their broad acceptance and use in traditional medicine. Table 6 shows some of browsed species that are cited in literature for medicinal purpose.  

Table 6. Veterinary use of some plant species, their mode of preparation, plant part used and authors reported particular species.

Plant species

Disease/condition

Part used

Mode of Preparation

Biological activities

Acacia nilotica

Wounds,  galactogogue Fagnisse, (2006)

Fruits, seeds, leaves

Powder

Antimicrobial and Phytochemical activities, Solomon-Wisdom and Shittu (2010)

Combretum erythrophyllum

Abdominal pains, venereal diseases,  Hutchings et al (1996)

Leaves

Decoctions

antimicrobial activity, Martin and Eloff (1998)

Combretum zeyheri

Diarrhoea, Fyhrquist (2002)

Roots

Hot water decoctions of roots; mixed with maize porridge; sometimes together with other Combretum species 

Antimicrobial activity, Eloff (1999)

Dichrostachys ceneria

Brucellosis, Tamboura et al (1998)

Bark

Decoction in milk

Antibacterial activity Eisa et al (2000)

Diospyros mespiliformis

Dried leaves are used for sleeping sickness, malaria, headache and anthelmintic, dried barks are used for cough and leprosy [Khan et al., 1980] ; galactophore
(
Luseba and Van der Merwe, 2006). 

Bark, leaves

Bark grinded and mix with hippopotamus fat; dose and also rub into vagina. Dried leaves and dried bark

Antidiarrhoeal, Antihypertensive, Belemtougri  et al (2006); cytotoxicity activity. Adeyini and Robert, (2003).

Dombeya rotundufolia

Newcastle in chickens (Luseba and Van der Merwe (2006); Infectious diseases in cattle (McGaw et al 2007).

Leaves and flowers

Grind leaves/flowers and mix with chicken feed during the outbreaks. It is used generally when seasons change to prevent the disease

Antibacterial, anthelmintic, brine shrimp toxicity (McGaw et al 2007)

Lantana camara

Dermatophilosis, plague, Emmanuel-Ali (2002).

Whole plant

Water and ethanolic extract

Toxicity, Sharma et al (1981)

Peltophorum africanum

Tonic, diarrhoea Van der Merwe et al (2001); Bizimenyera et al. (2005) and  Iwalewa et al (2007)

Bark, root bark

Decoctions

Antioxidant activity and anthelmintic activity Bizimenyera et al (2005)

Psidium guajava

Diarrhoea Shanmugavelu et al (2007)

Leaves

Boil 0.5 kg of leaves in 3 glasses of water

Antimicrobial activity, Parillon and Edward (2006)

Rhoicissus tridentate

 

Cattle disease(Pujol 1990), diarrhea in goats and sheep (Dold and Cocks 2001); heatwater, redwater, internal parasites, abortion (Van der Merwe et al 2001)

Leaves/tubers

Infusion

Antibabesia activity Naidoo et al (2005)

Terminalia sericea

Diarrhoea in cattle Luseba et al (2011); Ticks wounds,  Luseba and Van der Merwe (2006), hypertension and fever Fyhrquist et al (2002)

Roots

Roots are boiled and give the animal in 1 litre,1/2 litre to young ones (mix with milk). Roots are grinded, mix with water, apply on the ticks and wounds

Antifungal activity, Masoko et al (2005)

Ximenia caffra

Diarrhoea and dysentery Fabry et al (1996)

Leaves

Decoctions

Antibacterial activity Mathabe et al (2006)

Conclusion


Acknowledgement

Authors acknowledge Tshwane University of Technology for funding the study. We are also grateful for the cooperation obtained from Veterinary Services (Bushbuckridge, Thulamahashe). The local farmers and livestock keepers are thanked for sharing their knowledge on browsed species.  Ms A. Satekge is thanked for her assistance during plant collection.  The gratitude is shown to Mrs B Egan and Dr Makwala P.W. from the University of Limpopo and Mr P. Tshisikhawe from the University of Venda for their assistance in identifying the plants.


References

Acocks J P H 1988 Veld types of South Africa. Third edition. Botanical Research Institute, Pretoria. http://www.nwl.ac.uk/research/winners/Informal%20BeerTraders%20Report.pdf.

 

Adekunle O A, Oladele O I and Olukaiyeja T D 2002 Indigenous control methods for pests and disease of cattle in northern Nigeria. Livestock Research for Rural Development 14(2). http://www.cipav.org.co/Irrd/Irrd14/2/adek142.htm

 

Adeyini B A and Robert M F 2003 In vitro cytotoxicity activity of Diosquinone, a Naphthoquinone. Phytotherapy Research 17: 282-284.  http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ptr.1116/pdf.

 

Aganga A A and Tswenyane S O 2003 Feeding value and anti-nutritive factors of forage tree legumes. Pakistan Journal of Nutrition 2: 170-177. http://www.pjbs.org/pjnonline/fin103.pdf.

 

Allem A C 2000 Ethnobotanical testimony on the ancestors of cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz. subsp.esculenta.). Plant Genetic Resources Newsletter 123:19-22. http://www2.bioversityinternational.org/publications/pgrnewsletter/article.asp?lang=fr&id_article=3&ID_ISSUE=123.

 

Alonge G O and Alonge A O 2006 Methods of Data Collection for Research on Indigenous knowledge. In: Nworgu, F. C. and S.A. Olakojo (eds) Ethinoscience in Agriculture for Sustainable Food Production and Livelihood. Bora Agro Ventures, Ibadan.

 

Alves R R N, Barboza R R D and Souto W M S 2010 Plants used animal health care in South and Latin America. In: Katerere D. & Luseba D. (Eds). Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicine for Animal Health, Life Science Division, CRC Press, Boca Raton, USA.

 

Basha N A D, Scogings P F and Nsahlai I V 2009 Diet selection by Nguni goats in the Zululand Thornveld. South African Journal of Animal Science 39: 33-36. http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?pid=S0375-15892009000500008&script=sci_arttext.

 

Belemtougri R G, Constainti B, Cognard C, Raymond C and Sawadogo L 2006 Effect of two medicinal plant Psidium guajava L (Myrtaceae) and Diospyros mesipiiformis L. (Ebanaceae) leaf extract on rat skeletal muscle cells in primary culture. Journal of Zhejiang university science B 7: 56-63. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1361761/.

 

Benz B, Cavellos J, Santana F and Graf S 2000 Losing knowledge about plant use in the Sierra de Manantlan Biosphere Reserve, Mexico. Economic Botany 54: 183-191. http://www.mendeley.com/research/losing-knowledge-about-plant-use-in-the-sierra-de-manantlan-biosphere-reserve-mexico/.

 

Bizimenyera S E, Swan G E, Chikoto H and Eloff J N 2005 Rationale for using Peltophorum africanum (Fabaceae) extracts in veterinary medicine. Journal of South African Veterinary Association 76: 54-58. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2816430/.

 

Cantwell M 1991 Quality and postharvest physiology of "nopalitos"and "tunas Proceedings of the Second Annual Texas Prickly Pear Council Meeting. Texas A & I Univ., Kingsville, Texas 50-67.

 

Cunningham A B and Zondi A S 1991 Cattle owners and traditional medicines used for livestock. Investigational Report No 69. Institute of Natural Resources, University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg.

 

Dold A P and Cocks M L 2001 Traditional veterinary medicine in the Alice district of the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. South African Journal of Science 97: 375-379. http://eprints.ru.ac.za/342/1/SAJs_Dolds_Traditional_veterinary_medicine_in_the_Alice_district_of_the_Eastern_Cape_Province.pdf.

 

Eisa M M,  Almagboul A Z, Omer M E A and Elegami A A 2000 Antibacterial activity of Dichrostachys cinerea. Fitoterapia 71: 324 327. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VSC-40F1PTP-H.

 

Eloff J N 1999 The antibacterial activity of 27 Southern African members of the Combretaceae. South African Journal of Science 95: 148-152.

 

Eloff J N, Katerere D R and McGaw L J 2008 The biological activity and chemistry of the southern African Combreteceae. Journal of Ethnopharmacy 119 (3): 686.

 

Emmanuel-Ali N 2002 Dermatophilose bovine en Republique du Benin: epidemiologie, phytothérapie compares. Doctoral thesis, University d’ Abomey-Calavi, Benin. http://www.crcnetbase.com/doi/abs/10.1201/EBK1420045604-c14.

 

Etuk E B, Okoli I C and Udedibie A B I 2005 Priority issues in tropical animal health management. Animal Production research Advances 1(2): 83-91.

 

Ezeagu I E, Metges C C, Proll J, Petzke K J, and Akinsoyinu A O 1996 Chemical composition and nutritive value of some wild-gathered tropical plant seeds. Food and Nutrition Bulletin 17 (3): 104, http://www.nzdl.org/gsdlmod?e=d-00000-00---off-0fnl2.2--00-0----0-10-0---0---0direct-10---4-------0-1l--11-en-50---20-about---00-0-1-00---4----0-0-11-1-0utfZz-8-00&cl=CL3.66&d=HASH01ae2be82c78110c0240913b.5.1&gt=1

 

Fabry W, Okemo P and Ansorg R 1996 Activity of East African medicinal plants against Helicobacter pylori. Chemotherapy 42: 315–317.

 

Fagnisse F B 2006 Valorisation des planted\s  medicinales dans le traitement des maladies des ruminats (cas des bovis) aux alentous du pac W: inventaire ethnobotanique et persepectives. Unpublished dissertation. University of Abomey-Calavi, Cotonou, Bennin.

 

Fish L 1999 Preparing herbarium specimens. Pretoria: National Botanical Institute.

 

Fyhrquist  P , Mwasumbi L, Haeggstrom C A, Vuorela H, Hiltunen R, Vuorela P  2002  Ethnobotanical and antimicrobial investigation on some species of Terminalia and Combretum (Combretaceae) growing in Tanzania. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 79: 169–177.

 

Goehl B1981 Tropical feeds: feed information summaries and nutritive values  In: FAO Animal Production and Health Series (FAO), no. 12 / FAO, Rome (Italy). Animal Production and Health Div.; International Foundation for Science, Stockholm (Sweden), 544 p.

 

Haugerud A and Collinson M P 1990 Plants, genes, and people: Improving the relevance of plant breeding in Africa. Exploration Agriculture 26: 341-362.

 

Hutchings A, Scott A H, Lewis G, Cunningham A B 1996 Zulu Medicinal Plants—An Inventory. University of Natal Press, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa.

 

Iwalewa E O, McGaw L J, Naidoo V, Eloff J N 2007 Inflammation: the foundation of diseases and disorders. A review of phytomedicines of South African origin used to treat pain and inflammatory conditions. African Journal of Biotechnology 6: 2868–2885.

 

Kalra E K 2003 Nutraceutical – Definition and Introduction. AAPS Pharmaceutical Sciences, 5(3) Article 25 (http://www.pharmsci.org).

 

Kansonia K and Ansay M 1997 A recognition of rural knowledge: medicinal plants and traditional veterinary medicine of central Africa (testing the traditional veterinary pharmacopoeia), in Ethnoveterinary medicine: alternatives for livestock development, Proceedings of an International Conference held in Pune, India: 14-18pp.

 

Kavana P Y and Msangi B S J 2005 On farm dairy cattle feeding experience in eastern zone of Tanzania. Livestock Research for Rural Development 16 (6). http://www.lrrd.org/lrrd17/6/kava17062.htm.

 

Katerere D R, Gray A I, Nash R J and Waigh R D 2003 Antimicrobial activity of pentacyclic triterpenes isolated from Africa Combretaceae. Phytochemistry 63: 81-88.

 

Khan M R, Ndaalio G, Nkunya M H, Wevers H and Sawhney A N 1980 Studies on African medicinal plant. Part 1. Preliminary screening of medicinal plants for antibacterial activity. Planta Medica 40: 91S–97S.

 

Kharb S and Singh V 2004 Nutriceauticals in health and disease prevention. Indian Journal of Clinical Biochemistry, 19(1): 50-53.

 

Komwihangilo D M, Goromela E H and Bwire J M N 1995 Indigenous knowledge in utilization of local trees and shrubs for sustainable livestock production in central Tanzania. Livestock Research for Rural Development 6(3).

 

Komwihangilo D M, Sendalo D S C, Lekule F P, Mtenga L A and Temu V K  2001 Farmers’ knowledge in the utilization of indigenous browse species for feeding of goats in semi arid central Tanzania. Livestock Research for Rural Development 13(6).

 

Latoya B, Bussey J, Donehue Z, Fischer T, Fry W, Lawton J, Parham C, Turner S and  Wheeler J 2003 An investigation of the knowledge concerning medicinal plant use in Allegany country, MD and Somerset County, Pennsylvania. (Unpublished).

 

Lukhele M S and Van Ryssen J B J 2003 The chemical composition and potential nutritive value of the foliage of four subtropical tree species in Southern Africa for ruminants. South African Journal of Animal Science 33 (2): 132-141.

 

Luseba D and Van der Merwe D 2006 Ethnoveterinary medicine practices among Tsonga speaking people of South Africa. Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research 73: 115-122. http://www.ojvr.org/index.php/ojvr/article/view/156/151.

 

Luseba D, Tshikudo M L, Chepape R M and Tshisikhawe P 2011 Medicinal plant used in the treatment  of livestock disease in Vhembe region, Limpopo province, South Africa. Ethnobotany Research and Applications: In press.

 

Maphosa V, Tshisikhawe P, Thembo K and Masika P 2010 Ethnoveterinary medicine in Southern Africa. In: Katerere D. & Luseba D. (Eds). Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicine for Animal Health, Life Science Division, CRC Press, Boca Raton, USA.

 

Martini N D and Eloff J N 1998 The preliminary isolation of several antibacterial compounds from Combretum erythrophyllum (Combretaceae). Journal of Ethnopharmacology 62: 255–263.

 

Martin N D, Katerere D R and Eloff J N 2001 Biological activity of five antibacterial flavonoids from Combretum erythrophyllum (Combretaceae). Journal of Ethnopharmacology 92: 207-212.

 

Masoko P and Eloff J.N. 2005 The diversity of antifungal compounds of six South African Terminalia species (Combretaceae) determined by bioautography, African Journal of Biotechnology 4: 1425–1431.

 

Mathabe M C, Nikolova RV, Lall N and Nyazema N Z 2006 Antibacterial activities of medicinal plants used for the treatment of diarrhoea in Limpopo Province, South Africa. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 105: 286 – 293.

 

Matlebyane M M, Ng’ambi J W W and Aregheore E M 2010 Indigenous knowledge (IK) ranking of available browse and grass species and some shrubs used in medicinal and ethno-veterinary practices in ruminant livestock production in Limpopo province, South Africa. Livestock Research for Rural Development 22(3).

 

McGaw L J, Rabe T, Sparg S G, Jager A K, Eloff J N and Van Staden J 2001 An investigation on the biological activity of combretum species. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 75(1): 45-50.

 

McGaw L J, Van der Merwe D and Eloff J N 2007 In vitro  anthelmintic, antibacterial and cytotoxic effects of extracts  from plants used in South African ethnoveterinary medicine. The Veterinary Journal 173: 366-372.

 

 Mokoboki H K, Ndlovu L R, Ng’ambi, J.W, Malatje, M M and Nikolova R V 2005 Nutritive value of Acacia tree foliage growing in the Limpopo Province of SA. South African Journal of Animal Science, 35: 221-228.

 

Moleele NM 1998 Encroacher woody plant browse as feed for cattle. Cattle diet composition for three seasons at Olifants Drift, south-east Botswana. Journal of Arid Environments 40: 255-268.

 

Naidoo V, Zweygarth E, Eloff J N and Swan G E 2005 Identification of anti-babesia activity for four ethnoveterinary plants in vitro. Veterinary Parasitology 130(1-2): 9-13. 

 

Ncube S and Mpofu D 1994 The nutritive value of wild fruits and their use as supplements to veld hay. Zimbabwe. Journal of Agricultural Research 32: 71–77.

 

Nkafamiya l l, Osemeahon S A, Modibbo U U and Aminu A 2010 Nutritional status of non-conventional leafy vegetables, Ficus asperifolia and Ficus sycomorus. African Journal of Food Science 4(3): 104–108.

 

Nitis I M 1989 Fodder trees and livestock production under harsh environment. Asian Livestock, October 1989: 116–120.

 

Orticio G 2006 Indigenous knowledge and IP food security: A review of concepts and cases. In: Advancing indigenous system for IP food security: A national forum, University of the Philiph.


Osawaru M E and Danin-Ogbe F M 2010 Ethnobotanical studies of West African Okra [Abelmoschus caillei (A.Cher) Stevels] from some tribes of South Western Nigeria. Science World Journal 5(1).

 

Parillon F and Edward H 2006 Antimicrobial Activity of Psidium guajava and Piper Betle Extracts on Selected Foodborne Bacteria. Master’s thesis, University Putra Malaysia.

 

Pfeifer J M and Butz R J 2005 Assessing cultural and ecological variation in ethno biological research: the importance of gender. Journal of Ethnobiology 25: 240-278. http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.2993/0278-0771 (2005)25%5B240: ACAEVI%5D2.0.CO2


Pujol J 1990 Nature Africa-the herbalist handbook. Jean Pujol Natural Healers’ Foundation, Durban, South Africa.

 

Shanmugaleva S, Murugaiyah M and Rehana A S 2007 Effectiveness of Melia excels leaves in controlling helminth in goats. In proceedings of the 28th conference of the Malaysian Society of Animal production. Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia 123-124.

 

Sharma O P, Makkar H P, Dawra R K and  Negi S S 1981 A review of the toxicity of Lantana camara (Linn) in animals. Clin Toxicol 18(9):1077-94.

 

Smith T, Mlambo V, Sikosana J L N, Maphosa V, Mueller-Harvey I and Owen E 2005 Dichrostachys cinerea and Acacia nilotica fruits as dry season feed supplements for goats in a semi-arid environment. Animal Feed Science and Technology 122: 149-157. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?

 

Solomon-Wisdom G O and Shittu G A 2010 In vitro antimicrobial and phytochemical activities of Acacia nilotica leaf extract. Journal of Medicinal Plants Research 41(12): 1232-1234. http://www.academicjournals.org/jmpr/PDF/pdf2010/18June/Solomon%20and%20Shittu.pdf.

 

Tamboura H H, Sawadogo L, Kabore H and Yameogo S M 1998 Dominantes pathologique de a reproduction dans les elevages de petits ruminants du centre-est, de l’est et du centre du Burkina faso: cas de la province du Passore. Revue Science and echniques, Seie: Science Naturelle, 22(2): 100-118.

 

Tegegne F 2001 Nutritional value of Opuntia Ficus-Indica as a ruminant feed in Ethiopia. FAO: Plant production and protection, 169. http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/005/Y2808E/y2808e0e.htm.

 

Terefi A, Solomon M and Lisanework N 2008 Management and utilization of browse species as livestock feed in semi-arid district of North Ethiopia. Livestock Research for Rural Development, 20.

 

Tewe O O 1995 Sustainability and development, paradigms for Nigeria’s livestock industry. Inaugural lecture, University of Ibadan Press, Ibadan, Nigeria.

 

Toledo BA, Galetto L and Colantonio S 2009 Ethnobotanical knowledge in rural communities of Cordoba (Argentina): the importance of cultural and biogegrophical factors. Journal of Ethnobotany and Ethnomedicine 5: 40. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2804588/.

 

Van der Merwe D, Swan G E and Botha C L 2001 Use of Ethnoveterinary Medicinal plants in cattle by Setswana –Speaking people in the Madikwe area of the North West Province of South Africa. Journal of the South African Veterinary Association, 72: 189-196. http://search.sabinet.co.za/images/ejour/savet/savet_v72_n4_a3.pdf.

 

Walker B H 1980 A review of browse and its role in livestock production in Southern Africa. In: Browse in Africa, the current state of knowledge..

 

Wikipedia 2011 Map of Mpumalanga with Bushbuckridge highlighted.svg. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_Mpumalanga_with_Bushbuckridge_highlighted.svg.



Received 6 February 2011; Accepted 11 May 2011; Published 19 June 2011

Go to top