Livestock Research for Rural Development 16 (8) 2004

Citation of this paper

Indigenous technical knowledge in animal husbandry

De Amitendu, H P S Arya, Babulal Tudu and A Goswami

Deptt. of Vety. & Animal Husbandry Extension Education,
West Bengal University of Animal & Fishery Sciences
68, K. B. Sarani, Belgachia, Kolkata- 700037
arunasisvet@yahoo.co.in


Abstract

The Indigenous Technical Knowledge in Animal Husbandry, which is in vogue through out rural India, is little documented and there is danger of extinction of this knowledge. It is of paramount importance to document these practices and to assess their validity. Keeping all these things in mind, a study on "Indigenous Technical Knowledge In Animal Husbandry (ITK)" was taken up during 2002-2003. A semi-structured interview schedule was used for data collection from 18 traditional healers and 70 traditional farmers. An inventory of 63 Indigenous Technical Knowledges was prepared related to Dysentery, Arthritis, Dog bite, Cough and Cold, Anoestrus, Wound, Bloat and Diarrhoea. The seven ITKs were subjected to validation test through the QuIK (Quantification Indigenous Technical Knowledge) method.  In all cases the test animals were cattle.

All the ITKs  were found to be effective against the respective ailments. However, these were perceived to be comparatively less effective than the Modern Veterinary Drug (MVD) in numbers of animals cured and quickness of healing.  The Indigenous Practices were perceived better than MVD in respect of their availability, lesser side effects, and lower cost.

These Indigenous Practices may be recommended and disseminated among the farmers where MVD is not easily accessible. Moreover these can be blended with MVD through laboratory experimentation and scientific rationality.

Key words: Indigenous technical knowledge, QuIK method, validation


Introduction

Since independence all efforts in India were concentrated on developing an allopathic-based veterinary infrastructure entirely under the government sector. There has been neglect of traditional systems and knowledge to the extent that many of us, even those specializing in veterinary medicine, are unaware of ancient literature and some are even skeptical about it (Rangnekar 1998). In recent years emphasis has shifted towards modern science in the maintenance and development of livestock.

With the development of modern medicine, especially after the second world war, traditional medical practices have been increasingly replaced and overlooked at the international level, mostly because many people regarded them as ineffective and useless (Bizimana 1997).  Modern medicine was thought to be able to solve almost all health problems of humans and animals. But this overestimation of modern medicine has changed in the course of the 'green wave' since the 1970s, particularly in industrialized countries. The 'green wave' has been characterized by an increasing demand for natural products in the form of drugs, food and cosmetics and was mainly triggered by the side effects resulting from the increasing use of chemicals in various areas of life including medicine. The reconsideration of traditional medicinal systems in the industrialized world and the fact that modern medicine is too expensive for many developing countries were the main reasons for the decision of the World Health Organization (WHO) in the 1970s to promote traditional medicated systems by checking scientifically the efficacy of plants used in traditional medicine and to identify the principles responsible for genuine therapeutic effects (Bizimana 1997).

India, the country of Rishi and Krishi, has a very rich heritage of traditional health control and several treatment systems (Ayurvedic, Unani, Homeopathy) that have been used for animals since time immemorial. These practices have been percolating from one generation to another by oral transmission and considered to be the holistic approach for livestock management methodologies adopted by non-literate cultures. All over India, there are experienced and knowledgeable specialists who practice indigenous techniques but their knowledge is not well documented, merely being transmitted verbally from one generation to the next.

The indigenous technical knowledge (ITK) regarding animal husbandry is considered as old as domestication of various livestock species. Unfortunately, these practices, which are in vogue throughout rural India, are little documented and there is danger of extinction of this knowledge. Thus it has become imperative to collect and document these practices and to assess their validity. Keeping all these things in mind, the present study was conducted to prepare an inventory of ethno veterinary practices in Paschim Midnapore district of West Bengal and to validate those ITKs by QuIK (Quantifying Indigenous Knowledge, Anne K Devilliers 1996) method.


Materials and Methods

The study was carried out purposively in twelve villages of Garbeta block and seven villages of Jhargram block of Paschim Midnapore district of west Bengal where these two blocks have sizeable tribal populations and are also adjacent to forest. Both the local healers as well as the actual users were the respondents for this study. An interview schedule was developed for both categories of respondents. Following the above method, 18 resource persons/key informants (local healers) specially for veterinary treatment and 70 traditional experienced farmers using these ITKs were selected from seven villages of Jhargram and twelve villages of Garbeta. Both the key informants and the ITK users were selected from the respective as well as nearby villages. The information was also taken from various secondary sources as well as through observation. Information was also collected from veterinary surgeons.

In order to confirm the plants or other ingredients or substances used to heal the ailments in animals they were requested to show them and observations were made to know the actual procedure of application or mixing of different ingredients in most of the cases.

Validation of ITKs has been done through QuIK (Quantification of Indigenous Knowledge) method by some identified persons who were experienced in particular ITK(s), using the method (QuIK) developed by Anne K de Villiers  in 1996. The basic premise of this method is that farmers know and understand the environment in which they farm and that answers to many questions can be found in the collective experience of the farming community and doing informal experiments over years. It can be used to unpack the practices of successful farmers, so that information can be disseminated to a wider group of farmers. QuIK methodology represents a rapid and relatively cheap way to elicit indigenous technical knowledge.

Farmers who were experienced in the particular ITK taken for validation were chosen. In QuIK, matrix ranking is combined with an interview schedule to elicit numerical data from experienced farmers. The matrix was designed through preliminary discussions with farmers and was then obtained as part of a systematic process to obtain quantitative data. The experienced respondents were asked to weigh the ITK(s) in comparison with  modern veterinary drugs for its performance on different criteria and effectiveness (How many animals are cured?, cost effectiveness, quickness in healing, ease in preparation, side effects and availability). The respondents were asked to put required numbers of pieces of stone out of 10 in each block of matrix. Unlike others, in case of side effects, the greater value of stones indicates fewer side effects. The same matrix was used to interview a number of farmers and the data from each farmer were treated as an independent result. Then the data were put in the statistical analysis (a standard analysis of Variance, ANOVA).

Data collected from the respondents on several criteria were subjected to one-way analysis of variance (Snedecor and Cochran 1989). Analysis was carried out separately for each group of data under each criterion under a particular disease studied. To test the difference of means among alternatives, Duncan's Multiple Range Test as modified by Kramer (1957) was followed. The linear model chosen for ANOVA was,

Yij = µ + ti + eij

Where, Yij = Observation of jth respondent to ith alternative
µ = Overall mean
ti = Effect of ith alternative
eij = Residual, distributed with mean "0" and variance "1"


Results and Discussion

Documentation of ITKs (in cattle in all cases)

Disease

ITKs Used

Dysentery
  • One hundred to one hundred fifty g stem, leaves of Anantamul (Indian sarsaparila, Hemidesmus indicus) is grounded and juice is extracted and mixed with honey and to be fed to the animal suffering from dysentery.
  • Three pieces of Golmorich (Black pepper, Liquorice Glcyrrhiza glabra Piper nigrum), 2 teaspoon full ghee and 50 g smashed Jastimadhu are mixed with 250 ml cold water and to be drenched.
  • One hundred ml sap is collected from the extract of Thankuni (Indian pennywort, Centella asiatica), Patharkuchi (Coleus aromaticus) and Durba (Dhub grass, Cynodon dactylon) and drenched to the cattle for 2-3 days.
  • Fifty ml extract of Ganda (African marigold, Targetes erecta) shoot is mixed with 50 ml extract of Durba (Dhub grass, Cynodon dactylon) and is drenched to the animal.
  • Three pieces of Golmorich (Black pepper, Piper nigrum), 5 g Jowan (Bishop's weed, Trachyspermum ammi) and 5 g Chirata (Swertia angusti folia var pulchella) are grounded and fed to the animal for 3-4 days.
  • One hundred g bark of Simul tree (Salmalia insignis, Bombax insigne) is boiled with 500 ml water and then being drenched to the animal.
  • Latex of Chatim (Dita bark, Alstonia scholaris) is mixed with Golmorich (Black pepper, Piper nigrum) in the ratio of (3:2) to be given to animal.
  • Bark of Palas tree (Butea monosperma) is boiled with 250 ml water and then is drenched to the cattle for 3-4 days.
  • Two hundred g Kalmegh (Creat, Andrographis paniculata) leaves and 100 g Thankuni leaves (Indian pennywort, Centella asiatica) are grounded to make a paste and then fed to the cattle.
  • One hundred ml extract of Kurchi (Holarrhena antidysenterica) leaves is drenched to the animal for 2-3 days.
  • Decoction of the root of Babul (Acacia arabica) is mixed with mustard oil in the ratio of 1:3 and to be drenched to the animal.

Disease

ITKs Used
Arthritis
  • Decoction of the root of Babul (Acacia arabica) is mixed with mustard oil in the ratio of 1:3 and to be drenched to the animal.
  • Roots of Dhutra (Thorn apple, Jimson weed, Datura stramonium), Bonkul tree and Rasun (Garlic, Allium Sativum) are mixed and grounded. A paste is made and applied on the affected part.
  • Hot fomentation is given with Akanda leaves (Asclepiadaceae, Calolropis gigantea) along with ghee.
  • A luke worm paste is made from Rasun (Garlic, Allium sativum) and ghee and applied on the affected part.
  • Sometimes some people put warm iron on the affected part.

Disease

ITKs Used
Dog bite
  • Roots of Bonson tree are mixed with 21 pieces Golmorich (Black pepper, Piper nigrum) and the paste is fed to the animal.

Disease

ITKs Used

Cough and cold
  • One hundred g Tulsi leaves (Holy basil, Ocimum sanctum) and 100 g Basak leaves (Adhatoda vasica) are boiled with water. Then extracted juice is mixed with 1-teaspoon honey and fed to the animal.
  • Three to four pieces of Tejpata (Indian cassia lignea, Cinnamomum tamala), 50 g Ada (Ginger, Zingiber officinale) and Aswatha (Ficus religiosa) leaves are mixed. Extract is made from the mixture and is drenched to the animal along with water.
  • Efflorcence of Tulsi (Holy basil, Ocimum sanctum) and Basak (Adhatoda vasica) leaves are mixed and extract is taken and mixed with ghee, Ada (Ginger, Zingiber officinale) and molasses and fed to the cattle.
  • Fifty ml Begna leave's sap, 50 ml sap of Ada (Ginger) and 3 pieces of grounded Black pepper are mixed and fed to the cattle.
  • A paste is made from ghee, Golmorich (Black pepper, Piper nigrum), Ada (Ginger, Zingiber officinale) and Rasun (garlic, Allium sativum). Then it is divided into 2 parts. One part is fed to the animal and other part is topically applied over head and neck.

Disease

ITKs Used

Anoestrus
  • Seven pieces of chicken egg per day is to be fed for seven days.
  • Twelve pieces of Kala (Edible banana, Musa paradisiaca) along with 400 g sugar are to be fed for 2 days.
  • One hundred g paste is made from Jaba (Chinese hibiscus, Hibiscus rosa sinensis) flower's bud and old sugarcane (Saccharum sinense) jaggery, then to be fed for 15 days.
  • One hundred g Asok (Ashoka, Saraca asoka) tree's bark is grounded and fed to the cattle.
  • Two hundred g bark of Asok tree (Ashoka, Saraca asoca) is to be boiled with 1 litre milk, then, every day it is to be drenched with water for 15-20 days.
  • A mixture is made with the extract of bark of Aswatha (Ficus religiosa) and gruel and is to be fed for 10-15 days.

Disease

ITKs Used

Wound
  • Sap extracted from leaves and stem of Kesurta (Scirpus grossus) is mixed with Rasun (Garlic, Allium sativum) and to be applied topically.
  • Halud (Turmeric, Curcuma domestica) is grounded and applied topically.
  • Extract of Ganda (African marigold, Targetes erecta) leaves is applied topically.
  • Jiyeti plant is to be burnt and ash of Jiyeti is then mixed with coconut oil and applied over it.
  • Extract of Visalyakarani leaves is applied topically.
  • Powder is made by grinding the seeds of Ata (Custard apple, Annona squamosa) and applied topically on the worm-infested wound.
  • Paste is made from root, bark of Jam (Syzgium jambolanum) and applied topically on wound.
  • Fruits of Khudikathi are to be grounded and mixed with coconut oil and applied topically.
  • Roots of Kuchila (Snakewood, Strychnos nux-vomica) and roots of Surjamukhi (Common sunflower, Helianthus annuus) is mixed with Palas (Butea monosperma) petals and mustard oil and applied topically over the wound.
  • Latex of Akanda (Asclepiadaceae, Calotropis gigantica) is applied topically.

Disease

ITKs Used

Bloat
  • Fifty g Amlaki (Emblic myrobalan, Emblica officinalis), 50 g Haritaki (Chebulic myrobalan, Terminalia chebula) and 50 g Bahera (Terminalia bellirica) are mixed and fed to the animal daily once for 7 days.
  • Ten g bark of Aswatha (Banyon, Fiscus benghalensis), 10 g Ada (Ginger, Zingiber officinale) and 10 g salt are mixed and fed to the animal daily once for 7 days.

  • A mixture is made from flower of Tal tree (Palmyra palm, Borassus flabellifer), flower of Halud (Turmeric, Curcuma domestica), fruit of Lata tree, soot of kitchen room, bark of Sonari tree and bark of Banahata and then fed to the cattle.
  • One hundred g mixture is made of salt, Pyaj, Bakhad, Ada (Ginger, Zingiber officinale), bark of Aswatha and honey and then fed to the cattle for 3-4 days.A mixture is made with Pat alu (one type of potato), Halud, Bel, Gad (one type of creeper), ghee, Rasun, bark of Aswatha and then fed to the cattle.
  • A mixture is prepared from burnt tobacco (Nicotiana tobacum), burnt Bhutta (Maize, Zea mays) and cockroach faeces and applied on the belly.
  • One hundred ml sap extracted from leaves of Kadam (Anthrocephalus cadamba) is drenched to the cattle for 2-3 days.

  • Mixture of 250 g Somraj (Centrathierum anthelminticum) and 250 g Indrajan (Pala indigo plant, Wrightia tinctoria) is fed to the cattle.
  • Twenty ml decoction of stem bark of Kadam (Anthocephalus chinensis) is given to the animal.
  • A 250 g mixture is made from Bitlaban (Natrum mur bit), grounded sulphur, molasses, black pepper and glue and then fed to the cattle.

Disease

ITKs Used

Diarrhoea
  • Pulp of 100 g old ripened Tentul (Tamarind, Tamarindus indica) is fed to the animal for two to three days.
  • Fifty ml sap of Peyara (Common guava, Psidium guajava) leaves is fed. It is efficient for goat especially.
  • Valukchairi trees bark and roots of Lajjawati (sensitive plant, Mimosa pudica), Apang (Prickly chab flower, Achyranthes aspera) and Chakunda are to be mixed and grounded. Then 100 pieces Gol morich (Black pepper, Piper nigrum) and 2 teaspoons ghee are added to it. In case of calf, 40 pieces Black pepper are to be added. Then daily 100 g is to be fed.
  • Bonkutti's leave and Kirkichi tree's roots are taken in an earthen pot and mixed with 2000 ml water. Then the mixture is boiled till it becomes 500 ml. Then 125 ml is to be fed to the cattle daily.
  • One hundred and fifty gram Pelakacha's fruit is collected and smoked and then fed to the cattle.
  • Juice of Anarash (Pine apple, Ananus comosus) leaves is mixed with water and then is to be drenched 100 ml daily for 2-3 days.
  • Neem (Margosa tree, Azadirachta indica) leaves and bark of Daka and bark of Daniaa are mixed and sap is extracted from the mixture and then 100 ml of it is drenched everyday for 3-4 days.
  • Six pieces of Simul (Bombax insigne, Salmalia insignis) seeds are pulverised and mixed with 250 ml butter milk, then filtrate of this is taken and mixed with goat faeces and to be fed for 3-4 times.
  • Rakta Kambal leaves (Indian red water lily, Nymphaea nouchali) are mixed with soda and then fed to the cattle, 50 ml daily for 2-3 days when it is suffering from bloody diarrhoea.
  • Sap of 250 ml Kala (Edible banana, Musa paradisiaca) leaves and 100 ml sap of Bans leaves (Bamboo, Bambusa arundinacea rundinacea) are mixed with 250 g sugar and fed to the cattle for 2-3 days.
  • Bark and fruits of Bahera tree (Belliric myrobalam, Terminalia bellirica) are pulverised and mixed with water then it is boiled and to be fed 50 ml everyday for 4-5 days.
  • Fifty ml sap of Tentul (Tamarind, Tamarindus indica) leaves and Sonal leaves are mixed with Gol morich (Black pepper, Piper nigrum) and then given orally for 3-4 days.
  • One hundred ml sap of Kurchi (Holarkhena antidysenterica) leaves is to be fed to the cattle for 2-3 days.
  • Fifty ml Juice obtained from bark of Sal tree (Sal, shorea robusta) and then it is to be drenched.
  • Fifty to sixty ml decoction of stem-bark of Khair (Cutch tree, Acacia Catechu) is given to the animal twice daily for 2-3 days.
Validation

A total of 7 ITKs, commonly used in three different health care practices, viz. wound healing, alleviating cough and cold, and treatment of diarrhoea, were selected from sixty-three ITKs based on their degree of use throughout the region under study. The ITKs were validated by the farmers in terms of cost effectiveness, availability and absence of or least side effect and included those involved in the treatment of three commonly occurring ailments of livestock in the region.


Validation studies on different alternatives (MVD; ITK-1, Halud is ground and applied topically; ITK-2, Extract of Visalyakarani leaves is applied topically) used for wound:

The effectiveness of the ITK was measured in terms of the number of animals cured by it (Table 1). showed that all the alternatives differed significantly (p<0.05) with each other regarding effectiveness in wound healing. The MVD was most effective (9.067±0.228) in this regard among all the alternatives, whereas, ITK-2 was more effective as compared to ITK-1.

Table 1: Evaluation on respondents to different alternatives (MVD, ITK-1: Halud is ground and applied topically; ITK-2: extract of Visalyakarani leaves is applied topically) used for wound healing tc "Table 4.9 \: Evaluation on respondents to different alternatives (MVD, ITK-1 \: Halud is ground and applied topically; ITK-2 \: extract of Visalyakarani leaves is applied topically) used for wound healing" (N=15)(Mean±SE)

Criteria

MVD

ITK-1

ITK-2

Effectiveness

9.067±0.228a

5.400±0.306c

7.267±0.371b

Side Effect#

9.400±0.131a

5.600±0.289b

5.467±0.307b

 

Cost effective

4.067±0.358c

9.200±0.243b

10.000±0.000a

Availability

5.667±0.398b

9.600±0.190a

9.667±0.159a

 

Quickness in healing

8.533±0.192a

4.200±0.296c

6.667±0.287b

Ease in preparation

6.933±0.345b

9.067±0.206a

8.600±0.235a

abc Means without common superscripts in columns differ at P<0.05
# High value means more side effects

Use of both the ITKs was highly cost effective over MVD.   It might be due to the fact that Halud was not commonly cultivated by the local farmers and they had to buy it from the market, whereas, Visalyakarani was available in the study area. As far as quickness in healing was concerned,  MVD rendered the healing process most quickly, followed by ITK-2 and ITK-1. As such, between the two ITKs studied for wound healing, extract of Visalyakarani was more effective in healing the wound as compared to halud though both the ITKs were not as effective as the MVD. About ease in preparation, MVD was found in readymade form, whereas, in case of ITKs, the farmers had to collect the ingredients first, then to process and apply it. For this reason, MVD might be easier to prepare than ITKs. MVD was perceived to be having more side effects than the ITK-1 and ITK-2. In terms of availability, both the ITKs were rated better than  MVD.  There was no significant difference between the ITKs (p<0.05). This might be due to the fact that MVD was not easily accessible, whereas, ingredients of ITKs were locally available and easily accessible to the farmers.

The critical perusal of the data revealed that the traditional farmers, keeping the cost-effectiveness, availability and side effect in view, favourably accepted the ITK-1 and ITK-2. However, MVD recorded higher ranking in criteria like effectiveness (How many animals are cured), quickness in healing and easiness in preparation. The viable alternatives, based on the available criteria, seemed to be the ITK-1 and ITK-2 from the traditional farmer's perspective.


Validation studies on different alternatives (MVD; ITK-1, Tulsi + Vasak + Honey; ITK-2, Ghee + Golmorich + Ada+ Rasun) used for cough and cold

Regarding effectiveness, MVD was better than ITK-1 and ITK-2 (Table2).

Table 2.   Evaluation on respondents to different alternatives (MVD; ITK-1: Tulsi + Vasak + Honey; ITK-2: Ghee + Golmorich + Ada + Rasun) used for cough and cold tc "Table-4.12 \: Evaluation on respondents to different alternatives (MVD; ITK-1 \: Tulsi + Vasak + Honey; ITK-2 \: Ghee + Golmorich + Ada + Rasun) used for cough and cold"  N=17 (Mean±SE)

 

 

MVD

ITK-1

ITK-2

Effectiveness

8.706±0.254a

7.235±0.304b

7.176±0.300b

 Side effect#

9.235±0.136a

6.000±0.271b

6.647±0.270b

Cost effective

4.471±0.259c

9.647±0.119a

9.000±0.271b

 Availability

7.118±0.208b

9.588±0.123a

9.647±0.119a

Quickness in healing

8.765±0.182a

6.176±0.231b

6.176±0.246b

Ease in preparation#

6.882±0.256b

9.294±0.166a

9.471±0.194a

abc Means without common superscripts in columns differ at P<0.05
#  High value means more side effects (or more difficult to prepare)

Regarding cost, ITK-1 was found to be most cost effective over ITK-2 and MVD. About quickness in healing, MVD was found to be more effective than other two ITKs. For ease in preparation MVD was superior to both ITK-1 and ITK-2. But in case of Side Efeect, MVD was having more side effect than ITK-1 and ITK- 2.  As far as availability is concerned, ITK-1 and ITK-2. were rated superior to MVD. To buy MVD the farmers would have to consult the veterinary specialist  and purchase it from the medical shop, while the ITKs can be prepared locally.

Thus, MVD was found highly effective for curing the animals,  quickness in healing and ease in preparation, whereas ITK-1 and ITK-2 were cheaper, having less side effects and more available than MVD, as perceived by the traditional farmers. The viable alternative on the basis of available criteria seemed to be the indigenous technical knowledge (ITK1 and ITK2) from the farmer's perspective.


Validation studies on different alternatives (MVD; ITK-1: Smoked Pelakacha's fruit; ITK-2: Juice of Anarash leave; ITK-3: Raktakambal + Soda) used for Diarrhoea:

MVD was more effective in curing diarrhoea and in the speed of healing than the  ITKs (Table 3).

Table3:Evaluation on respondents to different alternatives (MVD; ITK-1: Smoked Pelakacha’s fruit; ITK-2: Juice of Anaras leaves; ITK-3: Rakta Kambal + Soda) used for Diarrhoea tc "Table 4.14 \: Evaluation on respondents to different alternatives (MVD; ITK-1 \: Smoked Pelakacha’s fruit; ITK-2 \: Juice of Anaras leaves; ITK-3 \: Rakta Kambal + Soda) used for Diarrhoea"N=17 (Mean±SE)

 

MVD

ITK-1

ITK-2

ITK-3

Effectiveness

9.722±0.109a

5.278±0.195c

5.611±0.200bc

6.056±0.189b

Side effect#

9.667±0.114a

4.778±0.207b

5.000±0.214b

5.222±0.236b

Cost effectiveness

5.278±0.341b

9.222±0.236a

9.333±0.280a

9.611±0.200a

Availability

6.500±0.406b

9.167±0.271a

9.278±0.253a

9.333±0.229a

Quickness in healing

9.222±0.173a

4.889±0.196c

5.056±0.189bc

5.500±0.146b

Ease in preparation#

6.444±0.246c

8.667±0.181a

8.722±0.211a

7.389±0.183b

abc Means without common superscripts in columns differ at P<0.05
#  High value means more side effects (or more difficult to prepare)

The ITKs were more cost effective and more available compared with  MVD but the MVD was easier to prepare. There were more side effects with  MVD.

Thus, ITK-1, ITK-2 and ITK-3 were found positive regarding cost, side effects and availability, whereas, MVD was favourably accepted by the traditional farmers as far as effectiveness to cure (How many animals are cured), quickness in healing and ease is preparation are concerned. Experience from discussions with the traditional farmers revealed that ITK-1, ITK-2 and ITK-3 seemed to be the viable alternative for diarrhoea.


Conclusions


References

Bizimana Nseknye  1997  Scientific evidence of efficacy of medicinal plants for animal treatment, Ethno veterinary Medicine: Alternatives for Livestock Development, Proceedings of an International Conference held in Pune, 4-6 November, 2: Abstracts, pp. 11-12.

De Villiers K Anne  1996  Quantifying indigenous knowledge: A rapid method for assessing crop performance without field trials. Agricultural Research and Extension Network, Agren, July 1996.

Kramer C Y  1957  Extension of multiple range tests to group correlated means. Biometrics, 13: 13-18.

Rangnekar D V  1998  Random thoughts on Ethno veterinary Practices and their Validation in relation to Livestock Development in India, ICAR short course entitled "Techniques for scientific validation and Evaluation of Ethno veterinary practices" pp. 24-27.

Snedecor G W and Cochran W G  1994  Statistical Methods, 8th ed. Affiliated East-West Press, New Delhi.


Received 4 April 2004; Accepted 26 June 2004

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