Indigenous camel mineral supplementation knowledge and practices on manyatta based camel herds by the Rendille pastoralists of Marsabit district, Kenya

S G Kuria, M M Wanyoike*, C K Gachuiri* and R G Wahome*

Kenya Agricultural Research Institute, Marsabit, Box 147 Marsabit Kenya
s.kuria@cgiar.org
*University of Nairobi, College of Agriculture and Veterinary services, Department of Animal Production
Box 29053, Kabete, Kenya
 

Abstract

A study was conducted to document the traditional mineral supplementation strategies on Manyatta (settlement) based camel milking herds by the semi-settled Rendille pastoralists of Marsabit district in Kenya. During the survey, 33, 28, and 30 respondents were individually interviewed in Kargi, Korr and Ngurunit locations of the district respectively.

The results indicated that a combination of rain water standing on salty soils referred to as marmar, and forages growing on such soils were the key sources of mineral supplements to Manyatta based camels, with commercial mineral supplements playing only a minor role. Salty water and forages located within a 15 km grazing radius of the camels were used mainly during the wet season, while commercial salts were used during dry periods. Natural salty water springs and moderately salty boreholes were also used during the dry season. The findings suggested that while Rendille pastoralists knew the importance of mineral supplementation and could describe the deficiency signs, the major salty water springs in the area were beyond reach for most of Manyatta based camels, predisposing them to multiple minerals deficiency.

Enhanced grazing and watering management could ameliorate this problem in the short term. In the long term however, there was need for a mineral supplement to be made availavle to the Manyatta based camels in order to meet their mineral requirements.

Key Words: Camel, indigenous knowledge, minerals, pastoralists

Introduction

The Rendille are semi-nomadic pastoralists living in Marsabit district of Kenya. They keep camels under extensive grazing systems characterized by manyatta (settlement) and 'satellite' (mobile) camps. The former type of production system is necessitated by the increasing need to settle in order to take advantage of government and mission-based services:  e.g. health, schools and sometimes relief food (Kaufmann 1998). The Manyatta-based herd represents about 25% of the total Rendille camel population but it determines the amount of milk available to the household (Garmagar 2001, personal communication). The herd grazes within a radius of 10 -15 km from the Manyattas, mostly on forage of lower nutritional value since vegetation near settlements tends to be degraded (Simpkin and Guturo 1995). Rendille camels mainly rely on natural mineral sources available in the area for mineral supply, the key ones being salty water and plants. The salty water is found naturally in springs and wells or collected in ponds after rains. The manyatta based herd often does not have access to the key natural mineral sources because the sources are located far (Kaufmann 1998), thus the camels are more vulnerable to mineral deficiencies compared to the mobile herds.

Mineral supplementation is an important management aspect for production and productivity of camels (Simpkin 1998). The Rendille herders appreciate the importance of mineral nutrition in camels and have developed criteria for assessing mineral deficiency. Current mineral supplementation strategies are based on local knowledge of mineral rich forages, water and soils.

Research efforts geared towards improving mineral supplementation practices in camels in these areas should build on the existing local knowledge. A socio-biological study was conducted to document indigenous knowledge on mineral supplementation and practices on the Manyatta based camel herds by Rendille herders during different seasons.

Materials and methods

The Rendille pastoralists occupy Laisamis and Loyangalani administrative divisions of Marsabit district between 2º and 3º North and 37º and 38º East. The area comprises sedimentary plains about 350m above sea level (Bake 1983)). To the East of Rendille area is mount Marsabit (1865m) while to the West and North are Mt.Kulal (2335m) and Hurri hills (1685m) respectively. All these landforms are of volcanic origin. To the southern side are the metamorphic basement rock mountain ranges of Nyiru (2752m), Ol Donyo Mara (2067m) and Ndoto (2637m) while to the South West are the Matthew's ranges (3170m). The area receives mean annual precipitation that ranges from less than 250mm on the plains to 800mm on the foot slopes of the mountains (Schwartz et al 1991) and follows a bimodal pattern. Long rains are received in March/April whilst short rains come in October through December. The mean monthly temperatures vary from 27 to 29ºC with mean minimum and maximum daily temperatures of 20ºC and 35ºC respectively.

The study was sconducted in Ngurunit, Korr and Kargi administrative locations all of which are located in western Marsabit district. Ngurunit is located on the mountain slopes while Korr and Kargi are in the plains. Soils in Kargi area are of volcanic origin while those in Ngurunit and Korr are metamorphic in nature (Bake and Kekem 1984). Vegetation in the area is mainly shrubs interspersed with annual grasses and trees with the bush being thicker in Ngurunit area and sparse towards Kargi. The study covered an area of 30km radii from the settlements.

A semi-structured questionnaire was designed, pre-tested and administered through a language translator on semi-settled Rendille camel herders in the three study sites during dry and wet seasons. The respondents were mainly boys and men who are directly involved in camel management and a few women numbering 33, 28 and 30 in Kargi, Korr and Ngurunit respectively. Individuals interviewed in the dry season were re-interviewed during the wet season to capture seasonal variations. Five to eight respondents were selected at random from 4 to 5 randomly selected manyattas at the 3 sites. The questionnaire captured data on: perceived importance of mineral supplementation in camels and sources of such supplements, pastoralists' decision making criteria on the use of various mineral sources and the perceived mineral deficiency signs in camels.

Analysis of the questionnaire

The collected data were coded and frequency summaries obtained using Windows based SPSS (Norman et al 1975). Charts were drawn using Excel 2000 for Windows (Maria 1999).

Results and Discussion

Perceived mineral deficiency signs

All the respondents interviewed during both wet and dry seasons were aware that camels required mineral salts, lack of which would result in deficiency signs. The respondents identified several signs indicative of mineral deficiency in camels (Table 1). These were grouped into four categories i.e. those pertaining to camel behavior, production, physiological and physical changes.

In order of importance, inadequate rumen fill, reduction in milk yield and licking of urine were perceived as the top three mineral deficiency signs by the respondents in all the three sites in agreement with Kaufmann (1998). Kargi herders registered the highest variety of mineral deficiency signs. Only eight respondents from Ngurunit recognized chewing of bones as a sign of mineral deficiency in both wet and dry periods. There was however a long-standing belief among the Rendille community that associated bone chewing by livestock to an impending bad omen (Garmagar 2001, personal communication). This could have contributed to the responses in Korr and Kargi, as the herders would fear mentioning this sign even if observed. Low understanding of the intricacies of mineral nutrition concepts could also partly explain this anomaly. If the respondents were aware that bones contained calcium, phosphorus and magnesium, they would have linked this camel behavior to mineral deficiency. Seasonal variations in the sites were noted in Kargi and Korr with most of the signs being observed in the dry season. The reverse was however true for Ngurunit where the findings were consistent with Kuria (2003) who observed low blood mineral levels during the wet season.

Figure 1 shows the responses, based on population cluster on which herd category mineral deficiency signs were observed. There were a total of 169 responses on this question from 169 respondents. The respondents comprised 74 elders, 44 morans (initiated but unmarried men), 41 boys, 6 women and 4 girls. For every category of camels, each bar represented the percentage of total respondents giving that particular answer e.g. 12.5% of 169 elders observed deficiency signs on the whole camel herd.

Figure 1. Respondent gender perception on specific camel categories in a herd that shows deficiency signs

Twenty six (26) percent of the respondents observed deficiency signs in the whole herd while 21.3% observed in new calvers. Approximately 17.2%, 11.8% and 23.1% of respondents observed the symptoms on young dams, young pregnant dams and other groups of camels respectively. Elders, morans and boys noted mineral deficiency signs on all camel categories whereas women respondents observed the signs on whole herd, new calvers or young dams. Girl respondents on the other hand observed deficiency symptoms on new calvers, young pregnant dams and the 'other' camel categories. This difference between the male and female gender could be due to the fact that the former were more involved in camel activities than the latter. Boys also generally had more knowledge on mineral deficiency than morans possibly because the former herded camels more than the latter. Boys also did most of the milking and therefore had more time to observe the camels.

For the new calvers, young pregnant dams, high milk yielding and old dams with big calves, respondents thought that the body demand for minerals had increased and therefore the higher incidence of deficiency signs. Based on experience, Kargi and Korr respondents believed that a camel needed to utilize the natural mineral sources particularly Korole water (Natural water from Korole springs located on the edge of Chalbi desert in Marsabit district, Kenya) for 7 consecutive years to attain the required body mineral threshold. After this period, camels would use fresh water for longer periods without showing any signs of mineral deficiency. In this respect, young dams were more vulnerable to mineral deficiencies than were the older camels.

Importance of mineral supplements in camels

Pastoralists from the three study sites were knowledgeable about the importance of mineral supplementation and its benefits to camels. They concurred that effects of supplementation were easily detectable through assessment of observable and measurable signs. These factors could be broadly categorized into changes in production characteristics, behavior of the camels, physiological and physical changes on the camel body. The observed effects as perceived by pastoralists are listed in Table 2.

The respondents perceived production and physical changes as the most important indicators of adequate mineral supplementation. This was attributed to the fact that such changes were easily observed and were of direct benefit to herders. Changes in feeding appetite were also easy to note and had direct bearing on daily milk yield. Other changes were less recognized by respondents probably because they were of less immediate importance.

Sources of mineral supplements for camels

Respondents' perception on the ability of different mineral sources to satisfy mineral needs of camels varied from site to site depending on the particular source that was accessible to the herders. In the dry season, 30.4% and 90.3% of Korr and Kargi respondents respectively used a combination of salty water and salty plants (evergreen type) while none of Ngurunit respondents used this source. Due to their proximity to the Korolle springs, Kargi respondents had better access to water sources of mineral supplements in the dry season. In general, reliance on mineral supply from salty plants and water was very high compared to commercial salts across the sites. Salty water and plants were used by 88.5%, 100% and 47.6% of respondents in Korr, Kargi and Ngurunit respectively in the wet season while commercial sources were used in combination with salty water and plants by 72.7% of respondents in Ngurunit.

Approximately 22%, 12% and 11.5% of respondents across sites during both wet and dry seasons (n = 174) believed that Korole water, 'marmar' water (Rain water standing on salty soil) from Kargi area and the Red Magadi (Raw unprocessed salt from lake Magadi in Kenya) respectively could individually meet all the mineral needs of camels. However, 37.3% were of the view that combinations of at least two types of mineral sources gave better results. Both standing rainwater and salty plants gained importance during the wet season, this being the time when both sources were available in abundance. These two sources were found in common grazing areas used by the manyatta-based herds. Permanent salty water sources and commercial salts were mainly used during the dry season when salty water and plants were not available. Commercial salts (Red Magadi and Sodium Chloride) were mostly used in Ngurunit and to a limited extent at Korr. Respondents from these two sites perceived their areas as not having rich natural mineral sources. In contrast, respondents from Kargi did not use commercial salts at all since they viewed the natural mineral sources in their area as adequate. Analysis of the key mineral sources in Kargi, Korr and Ngurunit (Kuria 2003) indicated that some important minerals were inadequate or missing in the available sources contrary to perception of respondents. The results however showed that Kargi camels had access to water sources that had a more balanced mineral content.

Salty water as sources of minerals

Important salty water sources identified by respondents varied from site to site. In Kargi, salty water was available from Korole springs at the edge of Chalbi desert (02°38.5 N 037°40.6 E: 389 masl) and also the marmar. Gatab Hadade, (geo-referenced: 02°39.2 N 037°38.4 E: 380 masl) was one of the largest ponds that held rainwater during wet periods in Kargi. In Korr, the major source was Harisurwa borehole and the standing rainwater in the surroundings while in Ngurunit, the sources were Adhiakche's, Siangan and Merti Dorob shallow wells.

According to Ngurunit respondents, camels mainly drank marmar water for 2-3 weeks following commencement of the rains when it was readily available. Their experience was that camels showing deficiency signs needed to drink the water for 2 to 3 consecutive weeks for the signs to disappear. Camels also intensively fed on the evergreen salty plants during this period, a behavior attributed to the continuing forage scarcity early in the wet season. In addition, the readily available drinking water mitigated the usually perceived bitterness of salty plants thus enabling camels to consume more of these during this period. By the end of the third week after start of the rainy season, conventional forages fully regenerated and the camels appeared to lose appetite for salty plants.

Salty water sources preferred by respondents on seasonal basis

During the dry season, 97% of Kargi respondents preferred taking their camels to Korole springs for supplementary minerals while in the wet season, 78.8% of respondents preferred using marmar water. Camels were watered from Korole once in three months and from other nearby less salty water sources at other times. Three months was the perceived residue period beyond which deficiency signs reappeared, a clear indication that the major reason for taking camels to Korole was mineral supplementation. This was consistent with Kaufmann (1998) who reported that 58% of Rendille herders (n = 48) took their camels to salt sources on observing deficiency signs. Although the respondents in Kargi appreciated that their camels would benefit from more regular visits to Korole, the frequency could not be increased due to inadequate labor.

At Korr, 75% of respondents preferred watering their camels from Harisurwa borehole in the dry season while 82.1% opted for standing rain water around the borehole during the wet season. On the other hand, 63.3% of Ngurunit respondents preferred Adhiakche's well in the dry season while 46.7% of respondents opted for marmar water in Harisurwa area during wet season. Unlike respondents in Kargi, those in Ngurunit and Korr watered their camels from the permanent salty water sources every 6 to 10 days suggesting that the major reason for doing so was normal watering.

Respondents across the three sites chose to use specific water sources, disregarding others available within the camel grazing area. Several factors, either singly or in tandem affected the preference of salty water source by the respondents. These included availability, distance of the source from the Manyatta, labor and perceived response of the camels after using the source. Kargi pastoralists preferred Korole water during the dry season despite presence of nearby shallow wells due to a perceived better response. The reasons were that the natural springs at Korole were accessible and the camels responded well after drinking the water. In the wet season, the same respondents preferred standing rain water (marmar) due to its availability together with the perceived good camel response. Respondents from Korr on the other hand preferred using borehole water (Harisurwa) during dry season as opposed to the equally accessible shallow wells. This was because of the proximity of the borehole to the Manyattas and more importantly, the respondents' perception that the borehole water was better for camels in terms of improved body condition and milk yield. Standing rain water (marmar) was the most important water source in the wet season across the study sites.

Due to the good camel response after watering from Korole springs, Rendille herders far from this source were very aware of this advantage (Bake 1991). In the present study, the respondents named and ranked twelve (12) springs within the wider Korole area. The ranking was based on perceived differences in camel response attributed to mineral content of the springs. During the ranking exercise, one respondent could rank a certain spring number 2, a second respondent could rank the same spring number 3 while a third respondent could still rank the same spring number 1. The perceived mineral content of a certain spring's water therefore varied from one respondent to the other. However, springs that ranked high were considered to be superior in terms of the mineral content.

In a study to evaluate the traditional sources of mineral supplements in the Rendille area (Kuria 2003), laboratory analysis of water samples from the various Korole springs confirmed differences in mineral content of the springs, generally in line with the perception of respondents. Highly ranked springs by the respondents were found to contain fairly high levels of phosphorus, potassium and sodium either singly or in combination. However, re-ranking of the springs based on specific mineral concentration would not exactly agree with that of the respondents.

In Kargi and Korr, 85.2% of respondents were aware that many springs existed at Korole though they could not recall the names. According to the respondents, when camels were taken to Korole for watering, they did not drink from one spring but were taken round to the perceived important springs to benefit from the variety of minerals. In Ngurunit, 67.0% of respondents were not aware that there were multiple springs at Korole. This was consistent with the fact that Korole was an important mineral supplement source, but almost exclusively for the camel herds in Kargi due to its accessibility.

Salty plants

The major salty plants identified by the respondents in the three sites are summarized in Table 3.

Salty plants, as in the case of salty water, were considered important by the respondents if camels responded positively after eating, if available and easily accessible and in addition, the growth habit (evergreen, deciduous, annual or perennial). Growth habit determined availability of the forage species. Seasonal changes in the perceived importance of a forage species was attributed to availability especially for deciduous and annual species, perceived palatability and presence or absence of alternative species.

Across the three sites, Salvadora persica, Ficus species and Salsola dendroides were ranked 1, 2 and 3 respectively in importance as plant sources of minerals to Rendille camels. Results of laboratory analysis for nine minerals did not reflect the respondents' ranking of the salty plants except for Salsola dendroides, which had exceptionally high levels of copper and zinc during dry and wet seasons respectively (Kuria 2003). However, the mineral content of a salty plant (inferred from response of camels) was only one of the several factors the respondents considered in ranking the salty plants.

About 67% of these plants were evergreen shrubs. They were therefore available throughout the year although pastoralists perceived them as more important during the dry season. This was possibly because, in the dry season, such plants served the dual roles of supplying minerals to camels and also acted as important components of the basal feed. Deciduous shrubs (Ficus species, Lycium europaeum) and perennial grasses (Dactyloctenium bogdanii, Sporobolus spicatus) had a score of 16.7% each. The respondents perceived the latter two categories of salty plants as more important in the wet season and stressed that camels tended to take advantage before the plants shed off the leaves or dried. Although the number of species and availability of salty plants was much higher during wet seasons, camels showed low preference suggesting low palatability. In addition, other forage species preferred by the camels were available in abundance during the wet season. Camels then appeared able to largely satisfy their mineral needs from these forages although the respondents perceived them as low in mineral levels.

Conclusions and recommendations

• Rendille pastoralists were aware of the importance of minerals in camel nutrition and could describe deficiency signs.
  
  
• The pastoralists were aware of the importance of supplementation for which they invariably relied on salty plants and water.
  
  
• Manyatta based camels could not rely on naturally occurring mineral sources due to the following reasons; salty plants were abundant during wet periods and only sparsely available during dry periods, salty water sources like marmar were seasonal depending on rainfall, key salty water and plants were distant from manyattas and beyond the normal grazing radius of camels.
  
  
• Consistent with fact that the camels could not rely on natural mineral sources, there is need to make available a mineral preparation to the manyatta based Rendille camels.

Acknowledgements

We wish to sincerely thank the EU/KARI for the generous financial support that ensured success of this work. Special thanks also go to Mr. Yussuf K. Aila, a KARI technical assistant based at Ngurunit for having tirelessly worked with us during the field data collection. Logistical support provided by all KARI Marsabit staff and cooperation on the side of Rendille pastoralists who participated in the interviews are gratefully recognized.

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